سه شنبه ۲۰ شهریور ۰۳ | ۲۲:۴۱ ۷ بازديد
Soaring 1,454 feet above Midtown Manhattan (from base to antenna), the Empire State Building
is New York City’s most recognizable and celebrated attraction.
• Millions of visitors from all over the world marvel at the spectacular views from its 86th Floor and
102nd Floor Observatories.
• With new investments in infrastructure, public areas and amenities, the Empire State Building has
attracted first-rate tenants in a diverse array of industries.
• The building is the center of New York City’s broadcasting operations; the skyscraper’s robust
broadcasting technology supports all major television and FM radio stations in the New York
metropolitan market.
VITAL STATISTICS:
• The Empire State Building has 102 floors, with 1,860 steps from street level to the 102nd floor.
• The Empire State Building also offers VIPs, celebrities and dignitaries exclusive access to its
103rd floor.
• Our 86th floor and 102nd floor Observatories offer the two highest vantage points in Manhattan at
1,050 feet (320 meters) and 1,250 feet (381 meters), respectively.
• The building sits on 79,288 square feet (7,340 meters) or approximately two acres and contains
2.7 million square feet of office space, making it one of the largest office buildings in the world.
• The total height of the building is 1,454 feet (exactly 1,454 feet, 8 9/166 inches) or 443.2 meters
from the base to the top of the building’s lightning rod/antenna.
• The building weighs 365,000 tons and its volume is 37 million cubic feet.
• The exterior of the Empire State Building is composed of 200,000 cubic feet of Indiana limestone
and granite, 10 million bricks and 730 tons of aluminum and stainless steel.
• The Empire State Building is currently undergoing one of the world’s largest elevator
modernization and refurbishment programs, in partnership with Otis Elevators. Completion of the
elevator upgrade and ongoing maintenance by Otis will deliver improved speed, energy
efficiency, and passenger experience.
HISTORY:
• Groundbreaking of the building commenced on March 17, 1930.
• Following groundbreaking, construction of the building took only one year and 45 days from the
setting of the tower's first steel columns on April 7, 1930, to the completed building by March 31,
1931 – a full month before the official opening ceremonies. This is the fastest construction to date
for a project of its scale.
• Framework rose at a rate of 4 ½ stories per week.
• The building was erected on the site of the original Waldorf-Astoria Hotel, with New York City’s
popular governor Al Smith as the guiding force behind its construction.
• More than 7 million man hours were logged in the Empire State Building’s construction.
• On May 1, 1931, then President Herbert Hoover pressed a button in Washington, D.C., to
officially open the Empire State Building.
• In 2011, the Empire State Building celebrated its 80th anniversary.
• The Empire State Building is considered the “World’s Most Famous Office Building,” and was
recently named “America’s favorite building” in a poll conducted by the American Institute of
Architects.
EMPIRE STATE REBUILDING:
• As part of the more than 0 million capital improvement project, the world’s most famous office
building is undergoing substantial renovations to restore and retrofit the landmark.
Renovations
• An extraordinary refurbishment brought together world-class architects, historians, artists and
craftsmen from Beyer Blinder Belle, Jones Lang LaSalle, EverGreene Architectural Arts, Inc. and
Rambusch Studio to recreate the building’s original Art Deco style while adding state-of-the-art
enhancements. At the center of the renovation is the restoration of ESB’s historic lobby, with its
iconic celestial ceiling mural made of aluminum leaf and 23-karat gold.
o All of the materials used on the replicated ceiling are the original materials used to create the
lobby ceiling in 1931, with over 20,000 man hours spent on the project.
o 12,000 linear feet of cast glass light fixture lenses were recreated to line the ESB lobby and
side corridors.
o The ceiling mural used over 15,000 square feet of canvas and 115,000 sheets of aluminum
leaf.
o As part of the recent renovations, ESB worked with the Landmarks Preservation Commission
to approve the design and installation of two Art Deco chandeliers, which were originally
planned for the building but never created. The new chandeliers were interpreted from
original architects’ drawings.
• As the final component of the renovations program, the Empire State Building announced a major
elevator modernization and refurbishment program with Otis Elevators Company on June 16,
2011. Completion of the elevator upgrade and ongoing maintenance by Otis will deliver improved
speed, energy efficiency, and passenger experience.
• On July 18, 2011, the Empire State Building unveiled a new, permanent exhibit that captures the
global icon’s astonishing history, engineering and construction. The installation is located on the
80th floor and serves to further enrich and enhance each visitor’s Observatory experience.
Sustainability
• Using the Empire State Building as a test case and model, world-class environmental consulting,
non-profit, design and construction partners comprised of the Clinton Climate Initiative (CCI),
Rocky Mountain Institute (RMI), Johnson Controls Inc. (NYSE: JCI) (JCI) and Jones Lang LaSalle
(NYSE: JLL) (JLL) came together to create an innovative process for analyzing and retrofitting
existing structures for environmental sustainability.
• A series of initiatives are reducing the building’s energy consumption by more than 38 percent
and save an estimated .4 million per year on energy costs, while serving as a replicable model
for similar projects around the world.
• The innovative energy efficiency program at the Empire State Building has exceeded guaranteed
energy savings for the second year in a row, saving .3 million and providing a new model for
building retrofits that is now being rolled out nationwide. In year two, the iconic property
surpassed its energy-efficiency guarantee by nearly 4 percent.
o As with the first year’s results, all information and monitoring and verification reports can
be viewed at www.esbsustainability.com.
• In July 2010, the Empire State Building Sustainability Exhibit was unveiled at the 2nd floor Visitor’s
Center showcasing the work of the awarding-winning, energy retrofit project currently underway.
The interactive, multi-media experience aims to educate the millions of people who visit the
building every year on the positive global impact of both energy efficient and sustainable living
practices. It combines physical artifacts with impressive technology and integrates digital and
sculptural elements to create a state-of-the-art display.
o A downloadable mobile application program has additionally been developed to give visitors
the option to retrieve more information following their visit to the building. To access the
application, barcodes are displayed throughout the exhibit that when entered will reveal
supplementary interactive, educational content.
• In January 2011, the Empire State Building became New York City’s largest commercial
purchaser of 100% renewable energy. The building signed a two-year contract with Green
Mountain Energy Company, the nation’s leading competitive retail provider of cleaner energy and
carbon offset solution, to purchase 100% wind power.
• On June 13, 2011 The Empire State Building announced the receipt of its second ENERGY
STAR certification from the United States Environmental Protection Agency. The certification
signifies that the property’s energy performance is part of a select group of commercial office
buildings, new and old, across the nation that have received this accolade.
• On September 13, 2011 The Empire State Building announced the receipt of its LEED Gold for
Existing Buildings certification from the U.S. Green Building Council. The Empire State Building is
one of a small number of National Historic Landmarks to earn this designation.
TOWER ILLUMINATION:
• The Empire State Building’s tower lights, illuminated to commemorate holidays, events and
special causes, are a beloved beacon of light for New York City and the world.
• The first light to shine atop the Empire State Building was a beacon that told those within a 50-
mile radius that Franklin Delano Roosevelt had been elected President of the United States in
November 1932.
• In Fall 2012, the Empire State Building upgraded its tower lighting system from floodlights to one-
of-a-kind LED tower lights. The state-of-the-art dynamic system allows customized light
capabilities from a palette of over 16 million colors in limitless combinations along with effects
previously not possible such as ripples, cross-fades, sparkles, chasers, sweeps, strobes and
bursts. The new LEDs will deliver superior light and vibrancy levels in real-time, unlike the
previous floodlights.
• The Empire State Building officially unveiled the new LED tower lights on November 26, 2012
with a first-of-its-kind light show in collaboration with Clear Channel Communications and 14 time
Grammy® Award winner Alicia Keys. Alicia flipped a switch to kick off the light show which was
choreographed to two of her tracks “Girl on Fire,” followed by her hit “Empire State of Mind.
• The tower lights are illuminated daily from sunset until 2 a.m.
• For updates of the lighting schedule, please visit the Empire State Building website,
www.esbnyc.com.
VISITOR INFORMATION:
• The Observatory has a heated, glass-enclosed area, which is surrounded by an outdoor open-air
terrace, equipped with high-power binoculars.
• A new second floor Visitors Center offers spacious, fully air conditioned waiting areas, equipped to
expedite the admissions and ticketing processes.
• Audio tours detailing the City’s unique skyline are offered in eight different languages.
• Observatory hours are 8:00 a.m. until 2:00 a.m. daily with the last elevators ascending at 1:15 a.m.
Tickets may be purchased onsite at the Empire State Building Visitors’ Center or online at
www.esbnyc.com .
• Current ticket prices for the Observatory are: Adults (18-61): ; Child (6-12): ; Seniors (62+):
; US Military with ID: ; Military in Uniform: Free; Toddlers (5 and younger): Free.
• By purchasing the ESB Express Pass ( for all visitors ages 6 or older) guests can avoid long w
is New York City’s most recognizable and celebrated attraction.
• Millions of visitors from all over the world marvel at the spectacular views from its 86th Floor and
102nd Floor Observatories.
• With new investments in infrastructure, public areas and amenities, the Empire State Building has
attracted first-rate tenants in a diverse array of industries.
• The building is the center of New York City’s broadcasting operations; the skyscraper’s robust
broadcasting technology supports all major television and FM radio stations in the New York
metropolitan market.
VITAL STATISTICS:
• The Empire State Building has 102 floors, with 1,860 steps from street level to the 102nd floor.
• The Empire State Building also offers VIPs, celebrities and dignitaries exclusive access to its
103rd floor.
• Our 86th floor and 102nd floor Observatories offer the two highest vantage points in Manhattan at
1,050 feet (320 meters) and 1,250 feet (381 meters), respectively.
• The building sits on 79,288 square feet (7,340 meters) or approximately two acres and contains
2.7 million square feet of office space, making it one of the largest office buildings in the world.
• The total height of the building is 1,454 feet (exactly 1,454 feet, 8 9/166 inches) or 443.2 meters
from the base to the top of the building’s lightning rod/antenna.
• The building weighs 365,000 tons and its volume is 37 million cubic feet.
• The exterior of the Empire State Building is composed of 200,000 cubic feet of Indiana limestone
and granite, 10 million bricks and 730 tons of aluminum and stainless steel.
• The Empire State Building is currently undergoing one of the world’s largest elevator
modernization and refurbishment programs, in partnership with Otis Elevators. Completion of the
elevator upgrade and ongoing maintenance by Otis will deliver improved speed, energy
efficiency, and passenger experience.
HISTORY:
• Groundbreaking of the building commenced on March 17, 1930.
• Following groundbreaking, construction of the building took only one year and 45 days from the
setting of the tower's first steel columns on April 7, 1930, to the completed building by March 31,
1931 – a full month before the official opening ceremonies. This is the fastest construction to date
for a project of its scale.
• Framework rose at a rate of 4 ½ stories per week.
• The building was erected on the site of the original Waldorf-Astoria Hotel, with New York City’s
popular governor Al Smith as the guiding force behind its construction.
• More than 7 million man hours were logged in the Empire State Building’s construction.
• On May 1, 1931, then President Herbert Hoover pressed a button in Washington, D.C., to
officially open the Empire State Building.
• In 2011, the Empire State Building celebrated its 80th anniversary.
• The Empire State Building is considered the “World’s Most Famous Office Building,” and was
recently named “America’s favorite building” in a poll conducted by the American Institute of
Architects.
EMPIRE STATE REBUILDING:
• As part of the more than 0 million capital improvement project, the world’s most famous office
building is undergoing substantial renovations to restore and retrofit the landmark.
• An extraordinary refurbishment brought together world-class architects, historians, artists and
craftsmen from Beyer Blinder Belle, Jones Lang LaSalle, EverGreene Architectural Arts, Inc. and
Rambusch Studio to recreate the building’s original Art Deco style while adding state-of-the-art
enhancements. At the center of the renovation is the restoration of ESB’s historic lobby, with its
iconic celestial ceiling mural made of aluminum leaf and 23-karat gold.
o All of the materials used on the replicated ceiling are the original materials used to create the
lobby ceiling in 1931, with over 20,000 man hours spent on the project.
o 12,000 linear feet of cast glass light fixture lenses were recreated to line the ESB lobby and
side corridors.
o The ceiling mural used over 15,000 square feet of canvas and 115,000 sheets of aluminum
leaf.
o As part of the recent renovations, ESB worked with the Landmarks Preservation Commission
to approve the design and installation of two Art Deco chandeliers, which were originally
planned for the building but never created. The new chandeliers were interpreted from
original architects’ drawings.
• As the final component of the renovations program, the Empire State Building announced a major
elevator modernization and refurbishment program with Otis Elevators Company on June 16,
2011. Completion of the elevator upgrade and ongoing maintenance by Otis will deliver improved
speed, energy efficiency, and passenger experience.
• On July 18, 2011, the Empire State Building unveiled a new, permanent exhibit that captures the
global icon’s astonishing history, engineering and construction. The installation is located on the
80th floor and serves to further enrich and enhance each visitor’s Observatory experience.
Sustainability
• Using the Empire State Building as a test case and model, world-class environmental consulting,
non-profit, design and construction partners comprised of the Clinton Climate Initiative (CCI),
Rocky Mountain Institute (RMI), Johnson Controls Inc. (NYSE: JCI) (JCI) and Jones Lang LaSalle
(NYSE: JLL) (JLL) came together to create an innovative process for analyzing and retrofitting
existing structures for environmental sustainability.
• A series of initiatives are reducing the building’s energy consumption by more than 38 percent
and save an estimated .4 million per year on energy costs, while serving as a replicable model
for similar projects around the world.
• The innovative energy efficiency program at the Empire State Building has exceeded guaranteed
energy savings for the second year in a row, saving .3 million and providing a new model for
building retrofits that is now being rolled out nationwide. In year two, the iconic property
surpassed its energy-efficiency guarantee by nearly 4 percent.
o As with the first year’s results, all information and monitoring and verification reports can
be viewed at www.esbsustainability.com.
• In July 2010, the Empire State Building Sustainability Exhibit was unveiled at the 2nd floor Visitor’s
Center showcasing the work of the awarding-winning, energy retrofit project currently underway.
The interactive, multi-media experience aims to educate the millions of people who visit the
building every year on the positive global impact of both energy efficient and sustainable living
practices. It combines physical artifacts with impressive technology and integrates digital and
sculptural elements to create a state-of-the-art display.
o A downloadable mobile application program has additionally been developed to give visitors
the option to retrieve more information following their visit to the building. To access the
application, barcodes are displayed throughout the exhibit that when entered will reveal
supplementary interactive, educational content.
• In January 2011, the Empire State Building became New York City’s largest commercial
purchaser of 100% renewable energy. The building signed a two-year contract with Green
Mountain Energy Company, the nation’s leading competitive retail provider of cleaner energy and
carbon offset solution, to purchase 100% wind power.
• On June 13, 2011 The Empire State Building announced the receipt of its second ENERGY
STAR certification from the United States Environmental Protection Agency. The certification
signifies that the property’s energy performance is part of a select group of commercial office
buildings, new and old, across the nation that have received this accolade.
• On September 13, 2011 The Empire State Building announced the receipt of its LEED Gold for
Existing Buildings certification from the U.S. Green Building Council. The Empire State Building is
one of a small number of National Historic Landmarks to earn this designation.
• The Empire State Building’s tower lights, illuminated to commemorate holidays, events and
special causes, are a beloved beacon of light for New York City and the world.
• The first light to shine atop the Empire State Building was a beacon that told those within a 50-
mile radius that Franklin Delano Roosevelt had been elected President of the United States in
November 1932.
• In Fall 2012, the Empire State Building upgraded its tower lighting system from floodlights to one-
of-a-kind LED tower lights. The state-of-the-art dynamic system allows customized light
capabilities from a palette of over 16 million colors in limitless combinations along with effects
previously not possible such as ripples, cross-fades, sparkles, chasers, sweeps, strobes and
bursts. The new LEDs will deliver superior light and vibrancy levels in real-time, unlike the
previous floodlights.
• The Empire State Building officially unveiled the new LED tower lights on November 26, 2012
with a first-of-its-kind light show in collaboration with Clear Channel Communications and 14 time
Grammy® Award winner Alicia Keys. Alicia flipped a switch to kick off the light show which was
choreographed to two of her tracks “Girl on Fire,” followed by her hit “Empire State of Mind.
• The tower lights are illuminated daily from sunset until 2 a.m.
• For updates of the lighting schedule, please visit the Empire State Building website,
www.esbnyc.com.
VISITOR INFORMATION:
• The Observatory has a heated, glass-enclosed area, which is surrounded by an outdoor open-air
terrace, equipped with high-power binoculars.
• A new second floor Visitors Center offers spacious, fully air conditioned waiting areas, equipped to
expedite the admissions and ticketing processes.
• Audio tours detailing the City’s unique skyline are offered in eight different languages.
• Observatory hours are 8:00 a.m. until 2:00 a.m. daily with the last elevators ascending at 1:15 a.m.
Tickets may be purchased onsite at the Empire State Building Visitors’ Center or online at
www.esbnyc.com .
• Current ticket prices for the Observatory are: Adults (18-61): ; Child (6-12): ; Seniors (62+):
; US Military with ID: ; Military in Uniform: Free; Toddlers (5 and younger): Free.
• By purchasing the ESB Express Pass ( for all visitors ages 6 or older) guests can avoid long w
سه شنبه ۲۰ شهریور ۰۳ | ۲۲:۴۰ ۷ بازديد
Name _____________________________________
Student Notes: A Short Summary of the Vietnam War
1. Why was Ho Chi Minh fighting the French? What was the name of his organization?
2. What happened at Dien Bien Phu?
3. How did the United States’ foreign policy relate to an increased presence in Vietnam?
4. What group organized resistance to Diem’s regime? List both names for the organization.
5. What was the Gulf of Tonkin resolution? Why was it passed? Why is it significant?
6. What was the purpose of Operation Rolling Thunder? Did it work?
7. What strategies did the United States use in Vietnam? Why did they believe they would work?
8. Why was the Ho Chi Minh Trail significant?
9. What was the Tet Offensive? How is it related to the Creditability Gap?
10. What was Vietnamization?
Student Notes: A Short Summary of the Vietnam War
Answer Key
1. Why was Ho Chi Minh fighting the French? What was the name of his organization?
Ho Chi Minh wanted to remove French control and influence from Vietnam, so the Vietnamese could rule themselves.
His organization was called the Viet Minh.
2. What happened at Dien Bien Phu?
The French were defeated by Ho Chi Minh’s forces and forced to leave Vietnam.
3. How did the United States’ foreign policy relate to an increased presence in Vietnam?
The Domino Theory stressed that if one nation fell to communism, the surrounding nations would also fall. Ho Chi
Minh was extremely popular in Vietnam after defeating the French and he probably would have won elections to
unifying the country under a communist government. To prevent Vietnam falling to communism under Ho Chi Minh,
the United States sent large amounts of aid and advisors. Eventually, this policy led to an increase in the amount of
US troops in Vietnam.
4. What group organized resistance to Diem’s regime? List both names for the organization.
The National Liberation Front consisted of supporters of Ho Chi Minh stationed in South Vietnam that carried out
various resistance activities. They are more commonly known as the “Viet Cong.”
5. What was the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution? Why was it passed? Why is it significant?
The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution was a congressional authorization that allowed President Johnson to greatly expand the
war in Vietnam. It was passed in response to the Gulf of Tonkin Incident. It is significant because it greatly expanded
Presidential War Powers and allowed Johnson to escalate the war without oversight from Congress.
6. What was the purpose of Operation Rolling Thunder? Did it work?
The purpose of Operation Rolling Thunder was to bomb the N. Vietnamese into submission and to demonstrate to the
South Vietnamese that the US was serious about supporting its cause. It did not work, it actually strengthened the
resolve of the North and increase the number of people siding with Ho Chi Minh.
7. What strategies did the United States use in Vietnam? Why did they believe they would work?
One strategy was “Search and Destroy” – US troops would go into the countryside to find and kill Viet Cong members.
Another strategy was attrition – extend combat to inflict the most amount of enemies casualties thus forcing them to
surrender. They believed it would work because they felt that N. Vietnam’s economy could not sustain a protracted
war effort.
8. Why was the Ho Chi Minh Trail significant?
It allowed the North to resupply the Viet Cong in the South despite US efforts to stop the trail.
9. What was the Tet Offensive? How do you think it is related to the Creditability Gap?
A massive North Vietnamese surprise attack against various American and South Vietnamese targets. It was a
military failure for the North Vietnamese, but it helped turned American support against the war. Many government
officials issued reports that the North Vietnamese were on the brink of defeat, but the Tet Offensive proved they were
not.
10. What was Vietnamization?
President Nixon’s plan to withdraw U.S. troops gradually and hand over management of the war effort to the South
Vietnamese.
Time Line of the Vietnam War
By David Walbert, Learn NC
Teacher Note: Strips should be cut apart prior to class
1858–1884
Vietnam becomes a French colony, called Indochina.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------
1930
The Indochinese Communist Party is formed. Ho Chi Minh is a founder.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------
September 1940
Japan invades Vietnam.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
May 1941
Ho Chi Minh establishes the Viet Minh (the League for the Independence of Vietnam).
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
September 2, 1945
Japan surrenders to Allied forces. Ho Chi Minh declares Vietnam an independent nation, the
Democratic Republic of Vietnam. But victorious France reassumes colonial authority.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------
1946
The First Indochina War begins, as the Viet Minh begin fighting against French colonial rule. Over the
course of the war, they grow from small guerilla bands into a well-organized and equipped army.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------
1950
China begins providing the Viet Minh with military advisors and weapons. In response, the United
States pledges $15 million in military aid to France.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1954
The Viet Minh defeat the French army in the Battle of Dien Bien Phu, forcing the surrender of most of
the occupying troops. On July 21, France signs the Geneva Accord, a cease-fire that leads to the
peaceful withdrawal of French troops from Southeast Asia. Vietnam is temporarily divided between
North and South at the 17th parallel (17 degrees north latitude). The Viet Minh are to withdraw north
of the line, while troops supporting France are to withdraw to the south. Elections are to be held in
1956 to reunify the country.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------
1955
On October 26, South Vietnam declares itself the Republic of Vietnam, with its capital at Saigon and
Ngo Dinh Diem elected president in rigged elections. Diem argues that South Vietnam was not a party
to the Geneva Accords, and cancels the 1956 elections. The North remains under the control of Ho’s
Communists, with its government at Hanoi.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------
1956
The U.S. military begins training South Vietnamese forces.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1957
Communist guerillas begin an insurgency in South Vietnam, assassinating more than 400 South
Vietnamese officials. Within a year, Communist forces have settled along the Mekong Delta.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------
1960
The Hanoi government forms the National Liberation Front (NLF) in South Vietnam. Diem calls the
group the Vietcong.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------
1963
Diem, a Catholic, has been intolerant of other religions and has tried to silence protests by Buddhist
monks. In response, monks protest by setting themselves on fire in public places.
In November, with the tacit approval of the U.S., members of the South Vietnamese military
overthrow Diem and execute him.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------
1964
General Nguyen Khanh takes power in South Vietnam in another coup.
On August 2 three North Vietnamese boats allegedly fire torpedoes at the U.S.S. Maddox, a destroyer
located in
the international waters of the Tonkin Gulf. A second attack was alleged to have taken place on August
4, but government documents later showed that no second incident took place. On August 7, Congress
passes the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, authorizing President Lyndon Johnson to “take all necessary
measures to repel any armed attack against forces of the United States and to prevent further
aggression.”
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------
1965
The U.S. begins sustained bombing of North Vietnam, called Operation Rolling Thunder. The bombing
will continue for three years.
In March, the first U.S. combat troops arrive in Vietnam. By year’s end, more than 200,000 U.S. troops
are stationed there.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1966
The first protests against the war are held, including a protest by veterans of World Wars I and II in
New York City.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1967
Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara calls the bombing campaign ineffective. The U.S. launches
Operation Cedar Falls, a ground war effort involving 30,000 U.S. and South Vietnamese troops to
destroy Vietcong operations and supply sites near Saigon. They discover a massive system of
underground tunnels that had served as headquarters for the Vietcong.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1968
In January, on the Vietnamese lunar new year (Tet), the North Vietnamese and Vietcong forces launch
an attack on one hundred South Vietnamese cities and towns. Within days, U.S. forces recapture most
areas. The “Tet Offensive” is a military defeat for Communists, but is a political victory, as Americans
begin questioning the U.S. military’s conduct of the war.
On March 16, U.S. soldiers kill hundreds of Vietnamese civilians in the town of Mai Lai.
His popularity plummeting, President Johnson announces that he will not seek re-election.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------
1968 (cont.)
In July, General William Westmoreland, commander of U.S. forces in Vietnam, is replaced by General
Creighton Abrams.
Richard Nixon is elected President in November.
By December, U.S. troop levels in Vietnam reach 540,000.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1969
President Nixon approves “Operation Breakfast,” covert bombing of Communist supply routes and
base camps in Cambodia. The bombing continues for 14 months without knowledge of Congress or the
American public.
Nixon’s Secretary of Defense, Melvin Laird, announces a policy of “Vietnamization” in which the U.S.
will gradually shift the burden of the war to the South Vietnamese army.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1969 (cont.)
Ho Chi Minh dies on November 3.
On November 13, the American public learns of the Mai Lai massacre. The news further turns opinion
against the war. The Army has already charged Lietenant William Calley, who led the attack, with
murder. Calley will be convicted a year later.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1970
On April 30, Nixon announces that U.S. troops will attack enemy locations in Cambodia. The news
sparks protests nationwide, especially on college campuses.
In May, Ohio National Guardsmen open fire on a crowd of student protesters at Kent State University,
killing four students and wounding eight others. Several of the protesters had been hurling rocks and
empty tear gas canisters at the Guardsmen.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1972
The North Vietnamese cross the demilitarized zone (DMZ) at the 17th parallel to attack South Vietnam
in what will be known as the Easter Offensive.
Nixon announces further troop reductions.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------
1973
On January 27, U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger and Vietcong leader Le Duc Tho sign the Paris
Peace Accords, an immediate cease-fire that will allow for U.S. withdrawal. Kissinger and Le are
awarded the Nobel Peace Prize later in the year.
On March 29, the last U.S. troops leave Vietnam.
The U.S. Congress abolishes the draft in favor of an all volunteer Army.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------
1974
North Vietnam announces a renewal of the war.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1975
North Vietnam launches a massive assault on South Vietnam. President Gerald Ford announces that
for the U.S., the Vietnam War is “finished.” On April 30, South Vietnam surrenders to Communist
forces, and the last Americans evacuate Saigon.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------
1976–1980
Vietnam is unified under Communist rule as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. The new government
imprisons as many as a million people without trial for supporting the previous regime. Thousands of
Vietnamese refugees, dubbed “boat people,” flee in crowded and rickety boats, hoping to be
permitted to reach other countries.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------
1982
The Vietnam Veterans Memorial is dedicated in Washington, D.C.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------
1997
The United States and Vietnam exchange ambassadors for the first time since the war, beginning a
new era of cooperation between the two nations.
Name: ______________________________________
Vietnam – Illustrated Timeline Review
Event & Date Description/Significance of the Event
Afghanistan haunted by ghost of Vietnam
By Ed Hornick, CNN
Washington (CNN) -- While President Obama's war council deliberates its strategy toward Afghanistan, the
ghost of Vietnam is often invoked as a warning.
Afghanistan, U.S. and coalition forces have been fighting in Afghanistan for eight years, and until recently the
war had been overshadowed by the one in Iraq. In March, Afghanistan will become America's longest war,
surpassing the Vietnam War.
The Vietnam War, which cost 58,000 American lives, is the one most often invoked when U.S. troops are
committed overseas.
Although some say Afghanistan is "Obama's Vietnam," experts say there are several major similarities and
differences between the two wars.
Eric Margolis, a veteran journalist and former Army soldier who served during the Vietnam War, said the
biggest problem the United States is facing now -- as in Vietnam -- is fighting the mostly poor, rural insurgents
who live among Afghans.
"It makes it very difficult to drive [insurgents] out, because they can stay there forever. ... They're at home.
When we attack villages where they are, we kill a lot of civilians, causing an uproar and turning the people
more against us."
Steve Clemons of the nonpartisan New America Foundation said one of the factors in the Soviet-Afghan War --
which pitted the Soviet-backed Democratic Republic of Afghanistan with the Soviet military against the Islamist
Mujahideen Resistance -- was the brutal attacks inflicted on both fighters and civilians by the Soviets.
"[There] was the sense of outrage and grievance at some of the things that they had done and the triggering of
a deeply felt emotional antagonism to the Soviet effort to dominate and colonize Afghanistan among the
Pashtun."
He worries that if the United States fails to focus on a more humanitarian and diplomatic approach, Americans
will fall into the same trap the Soviets faced, which ultimately led to them leaving the country defeated.
"I think one of the things I'm concerned about is whether or not we're triggering those same kind of emotions
among the Pashtuns today. And believe me, the Pashtuns don't care whether they're [going after] Americans
or going after the Soviets. If you begin to threaten their own perception of their own independence, then you
turn Pashtuns into Taliban."
Peter Beinart, who recently wrote an article called "Bury the Vietnam Analogy" on TheDailyBeast.com, has said
there is a real sense of national identity for Afghanis that wasn't seen in South Vietnam.
"Afghanistan is a real country that Afghans generally believe in. They have an Afghan national identity. That
didn't exist in South Vietnam," he said, adding that the Taliban is much less popular in Afghanistan than the
Viet Cong was in South Vietnam.
In Vietnam, the Communists controlled the nationalist movement and had the nationalist legitimacy. The
Taliban, meanwhile, is not as organized as the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese army were.
But there is evidence the Taliban is changing, as shown by a series of recent well-coordinated attacks on
remote Afghanistan outposts.
Journalist Margolis also compared the government of Afghanistan to the government of South Vietnam.
"In both cases, the government of Saigon [South Vietnam] and Kabul [Afghanistan] are heavily influenced by
minorities. We have made our enemies [among] the ethnic majority in Afghanistan who are the Pashtuns --
pretty well cut them out of power."
The recent Afghanistan elections received worldwide attention for claims of fraud by the incumbent, President
Hamid Karzai, who reportedly won the election. After fierce international criticism, Karzai recently agreed to a
runoff.
Another difference between the two wars comes in terms of troop numbers, Beinart said.
"I think what's clear is that the resources we put in Afghanistan have been absolutely minuscule compared to
Vietnam and compared to Iraq. ... In 1968, we had over 500,000 U.S. troops in South Vietnam. We had up until
a couple of years ago only about 20,000 [in Afghanistan]. ... So what's clear is, we haven't made anywhere near
the kind of commitment to Afghanistan as we made to Vietnam."
In the past month, Obama's top commander in Afghanistan, Gen. Stanley McChrystal, issued a report to the
president and the administration, outlining the problems facing the nation and what resources will be needed.
His prescription: more troops -- upwards of 40,000 by some estimates -- with the goal focusing on securing
Afghan towns and cities in certain areas.
A CNN/Opinion Research Corp. poll, taken October 16-18, showed 59 percent of Americans opposed sending
more troops into the country. The same poll found that 52 percent of Americans consider the war in
Afghanistan has turned into another Vietnam War situation, while 46 say it's not.
سه شنبه ۲۰ شهریور ۰۳ | ۲۲:۲۷ ۶ بازديد
REN requirements for development of seamless nomadic networks necessitates that
NREN staff have a working knowledge of basic satellite technology. This paper
applications, technology trends, orbits, and spectrum, and hopefully will afford the reader
an end-to-end picture of this important technology.
Satellites are objects in orbits about the Earth. An orbit is a trajectory able to maintain
gravitational equilibrium to circle the Earth without power assist. Physical laws that were
comeptualized by Newton and Kepler govern orbital mechanics.
The first satellite was the Moon, of course, but the idea of communications satellites
came from Sir Arthur C. Clark in 1945. The Soviets launched the first manmade satellite,
Sputnik I , in 1957. The first communications satellite (a simple reflector) was the US.
Echo I in 1960. The first “geosynchronous” (explained later) satellite, Syncom, went up
in 1962. There are now over 5000 operational satellites in orbit, 232 of which are large
commercial (mostly communications) satellites.
Satellites have become essential for modern life. Among the important applications of
satellite technology are video, voice, IP data, radio, Earth and space observation, global
resource monitoring, military, positioning (GPS), micro-gravity science and many others.
From direct-to-home TV to the Hubble telescope, satellites are one of the defining
technologies of the modem age. Video is the most successful commercial application for
satellites, and direct-to-home distribution is the most promising application for the
technology at this time. “Spot” images of places on Earth, GPS, and Internet
access-both for providers and direct-to-home or o f i c e h a v e been most successful,
while cell phone systems based on fleets of low flying satellites have been a flop. Mobile
phone-like connections for marine and mobile services have been with us for some time,
however.
Satellite services have some big advantages, such as being available almost everywhere
on Earth without wires, being mobile, being the perfect broadcast medium, and being
protocol agnostic. The downside to satellite technology is that satellites have either a
limited visibility over a spot on Earth, or a long round-trip time, and they broadcast data
that can be received by anyone under them. Satellite transmissions are also affected by
both terrestrial and space weather. They are subject to a higher error rate than fiber, and
they are complex from both a physical and regulatory point of view.
Satellites are launched from Earth by the shuttle, from high-flying airplanes, or from
ground-based rockets. Once launched, payloads must reach proper elevation and escape
velocity to be boosted into orbit. In order to maintain proper orbit, satellites are
i A A t o c c n c th- c n m n n n e n t o v e n i i ; ~ a A fnr 9 c m t a l l ; t o - h i c o A r n m m z r n ; , - m t ; n n c c x r c t o m
UU~”““”” ..LA” w”Luy”-”l*ru ‘”‘IU” v u L V I Y “ Y b Y I I L . ” “ I U I U “V.A.A*I-*I“..c*VILy “ J UCVL..,
Introduction to Satellite Communication Technology for NREN
controlled from a ground station on Earth that sends commands and receives status and
telemetry from the satellite.
2. ORBITS
Satellites are classified by the distance of their orbits above the Earth. Low Earth
Orbiting (LEO) satellites are located at an altitude of from 100 to 1200 miles, and
Medium Eartl Orbits (lVEO)are located at m althtde of from 4,000-!2,000 riles. Geo-
stationary orbits are located exactly 23.4 miles high. There are two Van Allen radiation
belts around the Earth. These areas of intense radiation are to be avoided in deploying
satellites. The two zones separate LEO and ME0 orbits.
LEG and i v E 0 (sub-geosynchronousj orbiring sareiiires are visitxe for oniy a period of
time from the point of view of an observer on Earth. Satellites in these orbits can
communicate with the Earth by “pass of€” to a fleet of like satellites providing full Earth
coverage. They can also pass off to a geosynchronous relay satellite, or they can dump
data to the ground as they pass over a ground station. Most of these “near Earth” satellites
are in orbits that go over or near the poles; some go over the same place on Earth at least
several times a day. The coordination and placement of Earth stations to “operate” and
take data from these satellites is a major consideration in the life cycle of a satellite. The
advantage of sub-geo satellites over those in geosynchronous orbit is that lower orbits are
less expensive to launch, it takes less power to send and receive data, and the round trip
time from Earth is faster.
. ...
0
THE0 (Twelve Hour Eccentric Orbits, or Molniya orbits) are not quite polar orbits that
stay in a hemisphere for half of a day. This approach allows for two M E 0 satellites to
cover an area of the Earth, thus giving continuous service as a geosynchonous satellite
would. This was developed and used extensively in Russia.
Geosynchronous orbits are the most desirable and the most expensive to obtain.
“Geosynch” satellites appear stationary to observers on the Earth. The orbit is always at
the equator at a height of 23,400 miles; the satellite thus travels in the same direction and
I
Introduction to Satellite Communication Technology for NREN
speed as the rotation of the Earth. These satellites, because they provide continuous
coverage, are the workhorses of the commercial satellite industry. Geosynch satellites
must be spaced at least 1/2 a degree apart to prevent signal interference. “Slots” are
closely regulated by the International Telecommunications Union (T.C.U.). They are
highly sought after and expensive to acquire, and since geosynch orbits are also
expensive to launch and maintain, most satellites in this orbit are big and complex.
Geosynchronous orbits require at least a quarter second round-trip time because of the
23,400-mile distance above the Earth plus the distance to the equator from the ground
station. More power is also needed because of the distance (although a larger antenna on
some satellites mitigates some of this). Since geosynch satellites are always in
approximately the same place with regard to the Earth, it is possible to precisely map a
“footprint” so that users can calibrate ground station equipment to minimize power and
bandwidth.
Geosynch satellites are kept tightly in their orbits by expending fuel. Older satellites are
often let to drift north and south while keeping in their east-west slots. Satellites allowed
to dnfi are said to be inclined orbits. This might require some tracking by ground
equipment, but when the drift is large enough, it allows the satellites to be seen in the
polar regions.
3. SPECTRUM
Satellites use the microwave band for communications (some older ones used the radio
ffequencies UHF, VHF). For a description of the electromagnetic spectrum check
http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/scienceAnow-I I/emspectrum.htm1.
I
~ ~~~~~~ ~~~
We modify sound waves to make speech. Dynamics such as loudness and tone are
changed to convey meaning. Telecommunication modifies electromechanical signals
such as microwaves to carry information in the same ways.
Microwave bandwidth is regulated by the FCC in the U.S. and by the ITU internationally.
Obtaining parts of the regulated bandwidth is expensive. Satellite operators must apply
Introduction to Satellite Communication Technology for NREN
years in advance to get spectrum for launch support, tracking, telemetery and operations,
and for data transfer.
Parts of the microwave spectrum are designated and used as follows (for a detailed
description see: http://www.NTIA.doc.gov/osmhome/nebbie.html):
VHFA-JHF 0.1-0.3 GHz - Milsat- amateur radio, “little” LEO
L Band - 1-2 GHz - Mobile Sat/manne, “big” LEO
S Band 2-4 GHz - Satellite commandcontrol
C Band 4-8 GHz - Data, voice, video distribution
Ku 12-18 GHz - Direct TV, Data, Voice, SNG, IP services
K 18-27 GHz -N/A (22.3-HzO absorption)
Ka 27-40 GHz - The next wave
* V 40-75 GHz - Released in the future (60 GHz - 0 2 absorption)
Z& v n - - A o 1 OTT- n s:i:~-- PACI
A YOllU O - I L U I i L - lvLlllLilly-cwa
Uplink (from the Earth to the satellite) uses the upper part of a kequency range while
downlink uses the lower fi-equencies. This is because a satellite is less capable of dealing
with the overtones derived from transmission.
The higher the fi-equencythe more bandwidth it takes to send a bit. That is because there
that are absorbed by water and free Oxygen. Also, the higher the frequency the smaller is
the antenna needed for the same bandwidth, as antenna size is related to the size of the
waveforms. The exception to this is L-Band where the signal is omni-directional. K-
Band is not used for satellite transmission as these frequencies are absorbed completely
by water vapor. Traditional C-Band, the first spectrum opened to satellites for
communications, requires a BUD (big ugly dish) at least 3 meters in diameter for even a
small bandwidth V-Sat, and up to 20 meters for a proper Earth station. Ku and Ka use
small dishes that can be portable.
4. EARTH STATIONS
Teleports, gateways, and “flyaways” are names for the terrestrial interface where the
signal from satellites meets the ground and where data is uplinked to the satellite. The
traditional architecture for satellite systems is to have a central complex with an antenna
or antennas controlling transmission to and &om satellites. Smaller antennas
communicate to other ground stations or terrestrial networks via.the central teleport.
Teleports act as a gateway between terrestrial networks such as the PSTN, the Internet or
cable TV infrastructure, 2nd the srtellite.
is gicztei atterriattioii of the sipa! “vj: the amospheie i i ~i;v‘e get c!osei to &e f r e q u e i ~ c i ~ ~
4
Introduction to Satellite Communication Technology for NREN
Aside from the interface equipment to connect to ground networks, the Earth station will
have an assortment of hardware to receive and send the microwave signals to and from
the satellite:
Reflector
Low Noise Amplifier
(for Receive)
Solid State Power
Amplifier (for Send)
1I Up/Down Converter
Demodulate
1-1 Modulate Satellite Modem
t
DigitaPSignal
1. A reflector and feed: This is the ''dish" that is the most visible component of the
system. The dish focuses the signal on the feed which sends it on. The size and shape
of the dish are a function of the frequencies used and the strength of the signal. The
larger the dish, the smaller the area of the sky it can see. This seems counter-intuitive
but it is true.
2. Outdoor equipment: This equipment isolates the signals to those we are interested in
and amplifies the signals (both send and receive). The equipment to change the
ffequency range to those the satellite expects (up and down converters) from L-Band
can be either indoor or outdoor.
3. Cable: Cable connects the antenna to the inside equipment.
4. A satellite modem that operates in L-Band (this could be separate modulators and
demodulators): These modems do more than the common terrestrial versions in doing
1
Introduction to Satellite Communication Technology for NREN
A/D and D/A conversion. They also define the signal method, do error correction
using redundancy coding, do time and frequency multiplexing, and perform link
monitoring. Satellite links are often asymmetric, having the ability to receive more
dzta than they can send.
5. Tracking gears: Gears move the antenna, if needed.
6 . A mtc~owove~cnsporcntbt;i!dirzg (radome): A radome is required if the reflectm,
feed and outdoor equipment requires covering from wind and snow.
7. The terrestrial interconnect: This could be a router, or a video codex or a multiplexer
to combine several input streams.
In order for an Earth station to become operational it must go through a series of tests and
adjustments. The tests are designed to test whether proper frequencies and time slots (for
TDM access) are used. Measurements are made and documented to insure that the power
levels are correct. The power is measured in terms of Effective Isotropic Radiated Power
(EIRE’). The units are decibels (dBW). Too much power can cause the signal to be
distorted and could disrupt other communications. Under-powered transmission can be
error prone.
The noise level in both directions is measured. This is G/T (the ratio of the gain fi-om the
antenna and outdoor equipment to the signal noise). The higher the ratio the better. The
definitive test is of course the actual error statistics measured by sending test data in both
db3CtiOES.
5. COMMUNICATIONS ONBOARD A SATELLITE
Earth orbiting satellites are a wonder of modern technology. Everything must withstand
the rigors of space in addition to the strain of the launch. In space there are extreme cold
and heat, radiation and micrometeorites, and storms on the Sun. Orbits must be obtained
and maintained and critical systems must be monitored. There are as many “floor plans”
to satellites as there are applications for the technology
NREN staff have a working knowledge of basic satellite technology. This paper
applications, technology trends, orbits, and spectrum, and hopefully will afford the reader
an end-to-end picture of this important technology.
Satellites are objects in orbits about the Earth. An orbit is a trajectory able to maintain
gravitational equilibrium to circle the Earth without power assist. Physical laws that were
comeptualized by Newton and Kepler govern orbital mechanics.
The first satellite was the Moon, of course, but the idea of communications satellites
came from Sir Arthur C. Clark in 1945. The Soviets launched the first manmade satellite,
Sputnik I , in 1957. The first communications satellite (a simple reflector) was the US.
Echo I in 1960. The first “geosynchronous” (explained later) satellite, Syncom, went up
in 1962. There are now over 5000 operational satellites in orbit, 232 of which are large
commercial (mostly communications) satellites.
Satellites have become essential for modern life. Among the important applications of
satellite technology are video, voice, IP data, radio, Earth and space observation, global
resource monitoring, military, positioning (GPS), micro-gravity science and many others.
From direct-to-home TV to the Hubble telescope, satellites are one of the defining
technologies of the modem age. Video is the most successful commercial application for
satellites, and direct-to-home distribution is the most promising application for the
technology at this time. “Spot” images of places on Earth, GPS, and Internet
access-both for providers and direct-to-home or o f i c e h a v e been most successful,
while cell phone systems based on fleets of low flying satellites have been a flop. Mobile
phone-like connections for marine and mobile services have been with us for some time,
however.
Satellite services have some big advantages, such as being available almost everywhere
on Earth without wires, being mobile, being the perfect broadcast medium, and being
protocol agnostic. The downside to satellite technology is that satellites have either a
limited visibility over a spot on Earth, or a long round-trip time, and they broadcast data
that can be received by anyone under them. Satellite transmissions are also affected by
both terrestrial and space weather. They are subject to a higher error rate than fiber, and
they are complex from both a physical and regulatory point of view.
Satellites are launched from Earth by the shuttle, from high-flying airplanes, or from
ground-based rockets. Once launched, payloads must reach proper elevation and escape
velocity to be boosted into orbit. In order to maintain proper orbit, satellites are
i A A t o c c n c th- c n m n n n e n t o v e n i i ; ~ a A fnr 9 c m t a l l ; t o - h i c o A r n m m z r n ; , - m t ; n n c c x r c t o m
UU~”““”” ..LA” w”Luy”-”l*ru ‘”‘IU” v u L V I Y “ Y b Y I I L . ” “ I U I U “V.A.A*I-*I“..c*VILy “ J UCVL..,
controlled from a ground station on Earth that sends commands and receives status and
telemetry from the satellite.
2. ORBITS
Satellites are classified by the distance of their orbits above the Earth. Low Earth
Orbiting (LEO) satellites are located at an altitude of from 100 to 1200 miles, and
Medium Eartl Orbits (lVEO)are located at m althtde of from 4,000-!2,000 riles. Geo-
stationary orbits are located exactly 23.4 miles high. There are two Van Allen radiation
belts around the Earth. These areas of intense radiation are to be avoided in deploying
satellites. The two zones separate LEO and ME0 orbits.
LEG and i v E 0 (sub-geosynchronousj orbiring sareiiires are visitxe for oniy a period of
time from the point of view of an observer on Earth. Satellites in these orbits can
communicate with the Earth by “pass of€” to a fleet of like satellites providing full Earth
coverage. They can also pass off to a geosynchronous relay satellite, or they can dump
data to the ground as they pass over a ground station. Most of these “near Earth” satellites
are in orbits that go over or near the poles; some go over the same place on Earth at least
several times a day. The coordination and placement of Earth stations to “operate” and
take data from these satellites is a major consideration in the life cycle of a satellite. The
advantage of sub-geo satellites over those in geosynchronous orbit is that lower orbits are
less expensive to launch, it takes less power to send and receive data, and the round trip
time from Earth is faster.
. ...
0
THE0 (Twelve Hour Eccentric Orbits, or Molniya orbits) are not quite polar orbits that
stay in a hemisphere for half of a day. This approach allows for two M E 0 satellites to
cover an area of the Earth, thus giving continuous service as a geosynchonous satellite
would. This was developed and used extensively in Russia.
Geosynchronous orbits are the most desirable and the most expensive to obtain.
“Geosynch” satellites appear stationary to observers on the Earth. The orbit is always at
the equator at a height of 23,400 miles; the satellite thus travels in the same direction and
I
speed as the rotation of the Earth. These satellites, because they provide continuous
coverage, are the workhorses of the commercial satellite industry. Geosynch satellites
must be spaced at least 1/2 a degree apart to prevent signal interference. “Slots” are
closely regulated by the International Telecommunications Union (T.C.U.). They are
highly sought after and expensive to acquire, and since geosynch orbits are also
expensive to launch and maintain, most satellites in this orbit are big and complex.
Geosynchronous orbits require at least a quarter second round-trip time because of the
23,400-mile distance above the Earth plus the distance to the equator from the ground
station. More power is also needed because of the distance (although a larger antenna on
some satellites mitigates some of this). Since geosynch satellites are always in
approximately the same place with regard to the Earth, it is possible to precisely map a
“footprint” so that users can calibrate ground station equipment to minimize power and
bandwidth.
Geosynch satellites are kept tightly in their orbits by expending fuel. Older satellites are
often let to drift north and south while keeping in their east-west slots. Satellites allowed
to dnfi are said to be inclined orbits. This might require some tracking by ground
equipment, but when the drift is large enough, it allows the satellites to be seen in the
polar regions.
3. SPECTRUM
Satellites use the microwave band for communications (some older ones used the radio
ffequencies UHF, VHF). For a description of the electromagnetic spectrum check
http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/scienceAnow-I I/emspectrum.htm1.
I
~ ~~~~~~ ~~~
We modify sound waves to make speech. Dynamics such as loudness and tone are
changed to convey meaning. Telecommunication modifies electromechanical signals
such as microwaves to carry information in the same ways.
Microwave bandwidth is regulated by the FCC in the U.S. and by the ITU internationally.
Obtaining parts of the regulated bandwidth is expensive. Satellite operators must apply
years in advance to get spectrum for launch support, tracking, telemetery and operations,
and for data transfer.
Parts of the microwave spectrum are designated and used as follows (for a detailed
description see: http://www.NTIA.doc.gov/osmhome/nebbie.html):
VHFA-JHF 0.1-0.3 GHz - Milsat- amateur radio, “little” LEO
L Band - 1-2 GHz - Mobile Sat/manne, “big” LEO
S Band 2-4 GHz - Satellite commandcontrol
C Band 4-8 GHz - Data, voice, video distribution
Ku 12-18 GHz - Direct TV, Data, Voice, SNG, IP services
K 18-27 GHz -N/A (22.3-HzO absorption)
Ka 27-40 GHz - The next wave
* V 40-75 GHz - Released in the future (60 GHz - 0 2 absorption)
Z& v n - - A o 1 OTT- n s:i:~-- PACI
A YOllU O - I L U I i L - lvLlllLilly-cwa
Uplink (from the Earth to the satellite) uses the upper part of a kequency range while
downlink uses the lower fi-equencies. This is because a satellite is less capable of dealing
with the overtones derived from transmission.
The higher the fi-equencythe more bandwidth it takes to send a bit. That is because there
that are absorbed by water and free Oxygen. Also, the higher the frequency the smaller is
the antenna needed for the same bandwidth, as antenna size is related to the size of the
waveforms. The exception to this is L-Band where the signal is omni-directional. K-
Band is not used for satellite transmission as these frequencies are absorbed completely
by water vapor. Traditional C-Band, the first spectrum opened to satellites for
communications, requires a BUD (big ugly dish) at least 3 meters in diameter for even a
small bandwidth V-Sat, and up to 20 meters for a proper Earth station. Ku and Ka use
small dishes that can be portable.
4. EARTH STATIONS
Teleports, gateways, and “flyaways” are names for the terrestrial interface where the
signal from satellites meets the ground and where data is uplinked to the satellite. The
traditional architecture for satellite systems is to have a central complex with an antenna
or antennas controlling transmission to and &om satellites. Smaller antennas
communicate to other ground stations or terrestrial networks via.the central teleport.
Teleports act as a gateway between terrestrial networks such as the PSTN, the Internet or
cable TV infrastructure, 2nd the srtellite.
is gicztei atterriattioii of the sipa! “vj: the amospheie i i ~i;v‘e get c!osei to &e f r e q u e i ~ c i ~ ~
4
Aside from the interface equipment to connect to ground networks, the Earth station will
have an assortment of hardware to receive and send the microwave signals to and from
the satellite:
Reflector
Low Noise Amplifier
(for Receive)
Solid State Power
Amplifier (for Send)
1I Up/Down Converter
Demodulate
1-1 Modulate Satellite Modem
t
DigitaPSignal
1. A reflector and feed: This is the ''dish" that is the most visible component of the
system. The dish focuses the signal on the feed which sends it on. The size and shape
of the dish are a function of the frequencies used and the strength of the signal. The
larger the dish, the smaller the area of the sky it can see. This seems counter-intuitive
but it is true.
2. Outdoor equipment: This equipment isolates the signals to those we are interested in
and amplifies the signals (both send and receive). The equipment to change the
ffequency range to those the satellite expects (up and down converters) from L-Band
can be either indoor or outdoor.
3. Cable: Cable connects the antenna to the inside equipment.
4. A satellite modem that operates in L-Band (this could be separate modulators and
demodulators): These modems do more than the common terrestrial versions in doing
Introduction to Satellite Communication Technology for NREN
A/D and D/A conversion. They also define the signal method, do error correction
using redundancy coding, do time and frequency multiplexing, and perform link
monitoring. Satellite links are often asymmetric, having the ability to receive more
dzta than they can send.
5. Tracking gears: Gears move the antenna, if needed.
6 . A mtc~owove~cnsporcntbt;i!dirzg (radome): A radome is required if the reflectm,
feed and outdoor equipment requires covering from wind and snow.
7. The terrestrial interconnect: This could be a router, or a video codex or a multiplexer
to combine several input streams.
In order for an Earth station to become operational it must go through a series of tests and
adjustments. The tests are designed to test whether proper frequencies and time slots (for
TDM access) are used. Measurements are made and documented to insure that the power
levels are correct. The power is measured in terms of Effective Isotropic Radiated Power
(EIRE’). The units are decibels (dBW). Too much power can cause the signal to be
distorted and could disrupt other communications. Under-powered transmission can be
error prone.
The noise level in both directions is measured. This is G/T (the ratio of the gain fi-om the
antenna and outdoor equipment to the signal noise). The higher the ratio the better. The
definitive test is of course the actual error statistics measured by sending test data in both
db3CtiOES.
5. COMMUNICATIONS ONBOARD A SATELLITE
Earth orbiting satellites are a wonder of modern technology. Everything must withstand
the rigors of space in addition to the strain of the launch. In space there are extreme cold
and heat, radiation and micrometeorites, and storms on the Sun. Orbits must be obtained
and maintained and critical systems must be monitored. There are as many “floor plans”
to satellites as there are applications for the technology
سه شنبه ۲۰ شهریور ۰۳ | ۲۱:۵۵ ۶ بازديد
his publication was prepared by the Centre
for Civil and Political Rights (CCPR Centre) in
the framework of its project supported by the
Embassy of Switzerland in Myanmar to assist
efforts of Myanmar in joining and implementing
the International Covenant on Civil and Political
Rights (ICCPR), and printed with support from
La Loterie Romande. It specifically aims to
provide all interested parties in the ratification
and implementation of the ICCPR, especially
relevant State authorities and officials, Members
of Parliament, Civil Society Organisations (CSOs)
and Human Rights Defenders (HRDs) with an
overview and basic understanding of the main
articles of the ICCPR.
It provides a simple explanation of the articles
1 to 27 of the ICCPR, which are the substantial
articles of the Covenant and should serve as an
introductory tool for anyone who wants to learn
about the ICCPR. It is written and designed in a
way which is easy to read for those who do not
have any or much knowledge about international
human rights law or who are not familiar with
legal terms.
Another main aspect of this publication is that,
considering the difficulty and complication of
producing a precise translation and interpretation
Introduction
of the ICCPR in different languages, it seeks to
provide texts that are easy, not only to understand,
but also to translate into languages, especially
for the countries where there is no official
translation of the ICCPR available. It should also
help interpreters and translators to have a basic
understanding of the ICCPR.
As such, it should be noted that this publication
does not intend to provide a full picture of
the ICCPR, or capture the complex practice
of protecting civil and political rights. For
anyone who wants to learn more and/or seeks
in depth legal understanding, this publication
also indicates sources and materials that
can be used as tools for the more advanced
purpose of implementing and applying the
ICCPR on the ground.
Simple Guide on the International Covenant
on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)5
As the only one in the ICCPR, article 1 deals with a
collective right i.e. the right of peoples (whereas
the other articles of the ICCPR deal with rights of
individuals). This article, i.e. the right of peoples
to self-determination, primarily addressing human
rights issues related to colonialism, is relevant to
the protection of Indigenous peoples’ rights.
Considering the relatively high attention paid and
interest in this article by relevant stakeholders,
this article and the issue of self-determination
is rarely invoked or raised by the HR Committee
in its work, unless it is brought up by the State
concerned or already under discussion at
national level e.g. in the context of the rights of
indigenous peoples.
Article 1 cannot be invoked in the Individual
Communications procedure of the Committee, as
it deals with a collective right of peoples, but not of
individual persons.
Article 1:
Right of Peoples to Self-determination
1. All peoples have the right of self-determination. By virtue of that right they freely determine
their political status and freely pursue their economic, social and cultural development.
2. All peoples may, for their own ends, freely dispose of their natural wealth and resources
without prejudice to any obligations arising out of international economic co-operation, based
upon the principle of mutual benefit, and international law. In no case may a people be deprived
of its own means of subsistence.
3. The States parties to the present Covenant, including those having responsibility for the
administration of Non-Self-Governing and Trust Territories, shall promote the realization of the
right of self-determination, and shall respect that right, in conformity with the provisions of the
Charter of the United Nations.
Issues addressed under this article
include:
▶ Self-governing or secession of non-
self-governing territories
▶ Self-governing of indigenous peoples
▶ Land rights of indigenous peoples
including free, prior and informed
consent of indigenous peoples on the
usage of their lands
▶ Representation/participation of
indigenous peoples in decision
making
6
Article 2 §1 lays out the principle of non-
discrimination in the protection of the rights
guaranteed in the ICCPR, including the obligation
of State parties to take positive measures to
eliminate discrimination. Except for specific
provisions of the ICCPR, which explicitly limit
the applicability of rights to a certain group (or
category) of population (e.g. article 25 limited to
the citizens), each Stateparty is obliged to respect
and ensure the rights guaranteed in the ICCPR
to all individuals regardless of their nationality,
including stateless persons, asylum seekers,
Article 2:
Non-Discrimination, Constitutional and Legal
Framework within which the Covenant is
Implemented, and Access to Remedies
1. Each State party to the present Covenant undertakes to respect and to ensure to all individuals
within its territory and subject to its jurisdiction the rights recognized in the present Covenant,
without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, *******, language, religion, political or other
opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status.
2. Where not already provided for by existing legislative or other measures, each State party to
the present Covenant undertakes to take the necessary steps, in accordance with its constitutional
processes and with the provisions of the present Covenant, to adopt such laws or other measures as
may be necessary to give effect to the rights recognized in the present Covenant.
3. Each State party to the present Covenant undertakes:
(a) To ensure that any person whose rights or freedoms as herein recognized are violated
shall have an effective remedy, notwithstanding that the violation has been committed by
persons acting in an official capacity;
(b) To ensure that any person claiming such a remedy shall have his right thereto determined
by competent judicial, administrative or legislative authorities, or by any other competent
authority provided for by the legal system of the State, and to develop the possibilities of
judicial remedy;
(c) To ensure that the competent authorities shall enforce such remedies when granted.
refugees and migrants who find themselves in the
territory or subject to the jurisdiction of the State
party concerned.
The definition of discrimination used by the
Committee is as follows: “any distinction,
exclusion, restriction or preference which is based
on any ground such as race, colour, *******, language,
religion, political or other opinion, national or
social origin, property, birth or other status, and
which has the purpose or effect of nullifying or
impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise
Simple Guide on the International Covenant
on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)7
by all persons, on equal footing, of all rights and
freedoms”.1 Enjoyment of rights and freedoms
on an equal footing does not mean identical
treatment in every instance.
Article 2 §2 requires each State party to take
necessary measures at the national level to
effectively and fully implement the ICCPR. In
this context, the Committee routinely asks State
parties to review and consider withdrawing
any reservations or interpretative declarations.
Article 2 §3 guarantees the right of persons to
effective remedies, when the rights or freedoms
recognised in the ICCPR are violated. It is closely
linked with article 14, which sets out necessary
guarantees and procedures for providing effective
remedies. For the State parties that also ratified the
first Optional Protocol, this paragraph provides the
grounds for the Committee to deal with individual
communications. The right to an effective remedy
set under this article is, in practice, non-derogable
even in a state of emergency.
1 - General comment of the HR Committee No. 18 (HRI/GEN/1/
Rev.9 (Vol.1)), § 6: http://ccprcentre.org/ ccpr-general-comments
Issues addressed under this article 2
(sometimes together with other articles)
include:
▶ Legislation prohibiting discrimination
▶ Discrimination against women,
lesbian, gay, bi*******ual, transgender,
inter******* and queer persons (LGBTIQ),
ethnic or national minorities,
indigenous peoples, illegal and
undocumented migrants, refugees
and asylum seekers, non-citizens/
nationals, persons with disabilities,
children born out of wedlock
▶ Equal pay for equal work
▶ Human rights abuses during periods
of unrest including those perpetrated
by non-state actors and the
protection of victims and witnesses
of human rights violations
▶ Incorporation of the ICCPR in the
domestic legislation and compatibility
of domestic legislation including
customary law with the Covenant
▶ Reservations and interpretative
declarations to ICCPR
▶ Compatibility of national laws
including counter-terrorism legislation
and customary laws with ICCPR
▶ Status of ICCPR in domestic
legislation i.e. its precedence over
domestic legislation including the
Constitution as well as the use of
ICCPR in domestic courts
▶ Establishment and functioning of
the National Human Rights Institute
according to the Paris Principles
for Civil and Political Rights (CCPR Centre) in
the framework of its project supported by the
Embassy of Switzerland in Myanmar to assist
efforts of Myanmar in joining and implementing
the International Covenant on Civil and Political
Rights (ICCPR), and printed with support from
La Loterie Romande. It specifically aims to
provide all interested parties in the ratification
and implementation of the ICCPR, especially
relevant State authorities and officials, Members
of Parliament, Civil Society Organisations (CSOs)
and Human Rights Defenders (HRDs) with an
overview and basic understanding of the main
articles of the ICCPR.
It provides a simple explanation of the articles
1 to 27 of the ICCPR, which are the substantial
articles of the Covenant and should serve as an
introductory tool for anyone who wants to learn
about the ICCPR. It is written and designed in a
way which is easy to read for those who do not
have any or much knowledge about international
human rights law or who are not familiar with
legal terms.
Another main aspect of this publication is that,
considering the difficulty and complication of
producing a precise translation and interpretation
Introduction
of the ICCPR in different languages, it seeks to
provide texts that are easy, not only to understand,
but also to translate into languages, especially
for the countries where there is no official
translation of the ICCPR available. It should also
help interpreters and translators to have a basic
understanding of the ICCPR.
As such, it should be noted that this publication
does not intend to provide a full picture of
the ICCPR, or capture the complex practice
of protecting civil and political rights. For
anyone who wants to learn more and/or seeks
in depth legal understanding, this publication
also indicates sources and materials that
can be used as tools for the more advanced
purpose of implementing and applying the
ICCPR on the ground.
on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)5
As the only one in the ICCPR, article 1 deals with a
collective right i.e. the right of peoples (whereas
the other articles of the ICCPR deal with rights of
individuals). This article, i.e. the right of peoples
to self-determination, primarily addressing human
rights issues related to colonialism, is relevant to
the protection of Indigenous peoples’ rights.
Considering the relatively high attention paid and
interest in this article by relevant stakeholders,
this article and the issue of self-determination
is rarely invoked or raised by the HR Committee
in its work, unless it is brought up by the State
concerned or already under discussion at
national level e.g. in the context of the rights of
indigenous peoples.
Article 1 cannot be invoked in the Individual
Communications procedure of the Committee, as
it deals with a collective right of peoples, but not of
individual persons.
Article 1:
Right of Peoples to Self-determination
1. All peoples have the right of self-determination. By virtue of that right they freely determine
their political status and freely pursue their economic, social and cultural development.
2. All peoples may, for their own ends, freely dispose of their natural wealth and resources
without prejudice to any obligations arising out of international economic co-operation, based
upon the principle of mutual benefit, and international law. In no case may a people be deprived
of its own means of subsistence.
3. The States parties to the present Covenant, including those having responsibility for the
administration of Non-Self-Governing and Trust Territories, shall promote the realization of the
right of self-determination, and shall respect that right, in conformity with the provisions of the
Charter of the United Nations.
Issues addressed under this article
include:
▶ Self-governing or secession of non-
self-governing territories
▶ Self-governing of indigenous peoples
▶ Land rights of indigenous peoples
including free, prior and informed
consent of indigenous peoples on the
usage of their lands
▶ Representation/participation of
indigenous peoples in decision
making
Article 2 §1 lays out the principle of non-
discrimination in the protection of the rights
guaranteed in the ICCPR, including the obligation
of State parties to take positive measures to
eliminate discrimination. Except for specific
provisions of the ICCPR, which explicitly limit
the applicability of rights to a certain group (or
category) of population (e.g. article 25 limited to
the citizens), each Stateparty is obliged to respect
and ensure the rights guaranteed in the ICCPR
to all individuals regardless of their nationality,
including stateless persons, asylum seekers,
Article 2:
Non-Discrimination, Constitutional and Legal
Framework within which the Covenant is
Implemented, and Access to Remedies
1. Each State party to the present Covenant undertakes to respect and to ensure to all individuals
within its territory and subject to its jurisdiction the rights recognized in the present Covenant,
without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, *******, language, religion, political or other
opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status.
2. Where not already provided for by existing legislative or other measures, each State party to
the present Covenant undertakes to take the necessary steps, in accordance with its constitutional
processes and with the provisions of the present Covenant, to adopt such laws or other measures as
may be necessary to give effect to the rights recognized in the present Covenant.
3. Each State party to the present Covenant undertakes:
(a) To ensure that any person whose rights or freedoms as herein recognized are violated
shall have an effective remedy, notwithstanding that the violation has been committed by
persons acting in an official capacity;
(b) To ensure that any person claiming such a remedy shall have his right thereto determined
by competent judicial, administrative or legislative authorities, or by any other competent
authority provided for by the legal system of the State, and to develop the possibilities of
judicial remedy;
(c) To ensure that the competent authorities shall enforce such remedies when granted.
refugees and migrants who find themselves in the
territory or subject to the jurisdiction of the State
party concerned.
The definition of discrimination used by the
Committee is as follows: “any distinction,
exclusion, restriction or preference which is based
on any ground such as race, colour, *******, language,
religion, political or other opinion, national or
social origin, property, birth or other status, and
which has the purpose or effect of nullifying or
impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise
on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)7
by all persons, on equal footing, of all rights and
freedoms”.1 Enjoyment of rights and freedoms
on an equal footing does not mean identical
treatment in every instance.
Article 2 §2 requires each State party to take
necessary measures at the national level to
effectively and fully implement the ICCPR. In
this context, the Committee routinely asks State
parties to review and consider withdrawing
any reservations or interpretative declarations.
Article 2 §3 guarantees the right of persons to
effective remedies, when the rights or freedoms
recognised in the ICCPR are violated. It is closely
linked with article 14, which sets out necessary
guarantees and procedures for providing effective
remedies. For the State parties that also ratified the
first Optional Protocol, this paragraph provides the
grounds for the Committee to deal with individual
communications. The right to an effective remedy
set under this article is, in practice, non-derogable
even in a state of emergency.
1 - General comment of the HR Committee No. 18 (HRI/GEN/1/
Rev.9 (Vol.1)), § 6: http://ccprcentre.org/ ccpr-general-comments
Issues addressed under this article 2
(sometimes together with other articles)
include:
▶ Legislation prohibiting discrimination
▶ Discrimination against women,
lesbian, gay, bi*******ual, transgender,
inter******* and queer persons (LGBTIQ),
ethnic or national minorities,
indigenous peoples, illegal and
undocumented migrants, refugees
and asylum seekers, non-citizens/
nationals, persons with disabilities,
children born out of wedlock
▶ Equal pay for equal work
▶ Human rights abuses during periods
of unrest including those perpetrated
by non-state actors and the
protection of victims and witnesses
of human rights violations
▶ Incorporation of the ICCPR in the
domestic legislation and compatibility
of domestic legislation including
customary law with the Covenant
▶ Reservations and interpretative
declarations to ICCPR
▶ Compatibility of national laws
including counter-terrorism legislation
and customary laws with ICCPR
▶ Status of ICCPR in domestic
legislation i.e. its precedence over
domestic legislation including the
Constitution as well as the use of
ICCPR in domestic courts
▶ Establishment and functioning of
the National Human Rights Institute
according to the Paris Principles
سه شنبه ۲۰ شهریور ۰۳ | ۲۱:۵۳ ۵ بازديد
The 2030 Agenda calls for us to make our agriculture1 and food systems
more efficient and sustainable, and to shift to more sustainable consumption
and production approaches.
Climate smart agriculture is a recent concept and approach launched by FAO
in 2010 in response to the growing need for a clear and coherent strategy for
managing agriculture and food systems under climate change to reach food
security and development objectives.
WHICH ARE THE CHALLENGES?
The United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization
(FAO) estimates that by 2050, agriculture will need to
produce 60 per cent more food globally, and 100 per cent
more in developing countries, if it is to meet demand
at current levels of consumption. Food demand needs
to be met primarily from productivity increase on
existing agricultural land since opening up new land for
agriculture carries major environmental costs. Hence,
supporting the transformation to more sustainable
production practices is a prerequisite for sustainable
development.
Agriculture and food systems at every scale, from
the farm to the global, have to improve and become more
efficient in resource use (use less land, water and inputs
to produce food more sustainably together with reducing
food loss and waste) to meet the future challenges. To
achieve this they also need to adapt to climate change
and natural resource pressure, and contribute to
mitigating climate change. As these challenges are
interconnected, ideally, they have to be addressed
simultaneously.
A VICTIM OR A DRIVER OF CLIMATE CHANGE?
Climate change will affect the conditions under which
agricultural activities are undertaken. The difficulties to
predict these changes make it hard to devise and promote
precise adaptation measures. The most effective
approaches are to reduce vulnerability and increase
resilience of a given system.
Agriculture and food systems are not only victims
but also a driver of climate change. Hence a more
systematic transformation of agriculture and food
policies is required. Most of the GHG emissions of the
agricultural sector are directly driven by use of resources.
The following three production factors have particular
influence on total agricultural GHG emissions:
Area: Agriculture is a significant driver of deforestation.
Deforestation and grassland being converted to cropland
induces higher carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions, and
reduces capacity for carbon sequestration. Hence
improvement of crop yields (productivity increase)
rather than expansion of cropland should be prominent
in any mitigation strategy.
Fertilizers: Nutrients are essential for crop production
but CO 2 is generated in the production of synthetic
fertilizers, which at field level is translated into nitrous
oxide emissions 2 . Therefore it is essential to improve
fertilizer efficiency and management, incl. switching
from synthetic to organic fertilizers.
Livestock: – is a significant source of methane (CH4) 3
and nitrous oxide (N 2 O) emissions. It also contributes
to emissions indirectly through the production of fodder
used for livestock. Considering the increasing global
Climate Smart Agriculture
INFORMATION BRIEF MARCH 2017
Climate Smart Agriculture
1 Including crops, livestock, fisheries and forestry.
2 Nitrous oxide is emitted when nitrogen is added to the soil through
the use of synthetic fertilizers. Nitrous oxide is also emitted during
the breakdown of nitrogen in livestock manure and urine.
3 The comparative impact of CH4 on climate change is more than
25 times greater than CO 2.
demand for meat and dairy products, increased resource
efficiency in livestock production is necessary.
WHAT ABOUT THE PRESENT FOOD PRODUCTION?
The current trajectory of growth in agricultural production
and productivity is unsustainable. Agriculture and food
production on land and in aquatic systems already
dominates much of the global terrestrial surface, and
has major negative impacts on the Earth’s ecosystems.
Earlier emphasis on individual agricultural sectors
(e.g. crops, livestock, forestry, fisheries, and aquaculture)
with a primary focus on productivity improvements has
created a “silo syndrome” in which the different sectors
compete with each other for space, political support
and natural resources, often resulting in sub-optimal
allocation and management of resources.
HOW CAN RESOURCES BE USED
AND PRODUCED BETTER?
Agriculture and food systems utilize a diverse range of
resources to produce a diverse range of outputs (e.g.
crops, meat, dairy) but also income and employment
opportunities for farmers, laborers and the agro-industry
as well as for the non-farm rural economy. These
different outputs are equally important from a food
security perspective.
Resource efficiency needs to be improved in every
type of food system in order to maintain production
systems within critical planetary limits; preserve the
ecosystem services on which agricultural production
relies, such as pollination, reduce land degradation,
biodiversity loss and pressure on water use and quality.
No matter what the system or scale is, there can be
important improvements in management practices.
Most of these improvements can be achieved by applying
various already existing techniques such as enhancing
soil quality, improving soil biodiversity, regulating carbon,
oxygen and plant nutrient cycles, and enhancing
resilience to drought and flooding.
WHAT IS CLIMATE SMART AGRICULTURE?
Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) appeared as a concept
on the policy agenda in 2009 and comes from an increased
concern within the global development community in
general, and within the FAO in particular, regarding
the impacts of climate change on global food security,
in combination with a steadily growing population,
urbanization and consumption growth trends.
The definition of CSA, as agreed upon by many
international institutions such as the UN, IFAD, the
World Bank and CGIAR, is that it integrates the three
dimensions of sustainable development (economic, social
and environmental) by jointly addressing food security
and climate challenges and is as such composed of
three main pillars or goals:
1. Sustainably increasing agricultural productivity
to support equitable increases in incomes, food
security and development;
2. Adapting and building resilience to climate change
from the farm to national levels;
3. Reducing and/or removing greenhouse gases
emissions (GHG), where possible.
CSA is as such not a new agricultural system, nor a new
set of practices. What is new is the integration of the
three pillars/goals.
WHICH ARE THE CRITICAL VIEWS?
CSA is based on the idea of a ‘triple win’ capitalizing
on the synergies between food security, adaptation and
mitigation advocating an approach focusing on all three.
When it comes to how this is interpreted by various actors,
or how it translates into action at local level, it is however
not as straightforward. Critical voices have argued that
CSA leans on a poorly understood relationship between
mitigation, adaptation and food, and hence serves to
justify nearly any agricultural practice to be climate
smart. Some civil society organisations further argues
that CSA displaces mitigation responsibility from the
global level and re-scales it onto local populations
by situating the problem on the present and current
agricultural practices. Further, within the civil society
organisations there is some critique based on the
interpretation of the concept and that it legitimises
agro-industrial expansion.
HOW TO REACH SUSTAINABLE FOOD AND
AGRICULTURE PRODUCTION?
In order to make agriculture more productive and
sustainable, the FAO has suggested five interconnected
principles for the transition toward sustainable food
and agriculture. They have the ambition to balance the
social, economic and environmental dimensions of
sustainability in agriculture, and provide a basis for
developing policies, strategies, regulations and
incentives to guide the transition to sustainability, while
promoting resilience through an adaptive response to
shocks and opportunities.
Principle 1: Improving efficiency (productivity) in the
use of resources is crucial to sustainable agriculture.
A sustainable approach to intensification seeks to raise
productivity through a balanced use of resources and
inputs, harnessing the potential benefits of ecosystem
services.
Principle 2: Sustainability requires direct action to
conserve, protect and enhance natural resources. Policies
and institutions will need to be strengthened in order
to provide the enabling environment and incentives for
requires innovative technologies, multidisciplinary
interventions, and institutions that are geared to capturing
synergies rather than maximizing individual objectives.
A practical approach, related to CSA, that has gained
momentum during the last couple of years is the
Agroecology concept. According to FAO, Agroecology
is a scientific discipline, a set of practices and a social
movement. As a science, it studies how different
components of the agroecosystem interact. As a set
of practices, it seeks sustainable farming systems that
optimize and stabilize yields. As a social movement,
it pursues multifunctional roles for agriculture,
promotes social justice, nurtures identity and culture,
and strengthens the economic viability of rural areas.
IMPORTANT TO KEEP IN MIND
The national ownership: The National Adaptation
Programmes of Action (NAPA), and at a more aggregate
level the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs),
prepared by the least developed countries provide a
rich panorama of adaptation priority measures. Many of
these priority projects are linked to agriculture. These
projects are of special interest and relevance because
they have been designed and prioritized by the countries
themselves.
CSA is not prescriptive: The recommended approach to
CSA is to identify and promote the most suitable strategy
for local conditions. Site-specific analyses are needed
to identify potential practices under various climatic
conditions. This does not imply that every practice and
measure, every farmer, in every field will contribute to
all three objectives.
The involvement of all stakeholders: Addressing food
security and climate change requires concerted and
coordinated involvement and action of many actors,
farmers, private sector, and public actors national and
international and civil society organisations. This can
be especially challenging as they are different and may
have conflicting objectives. Of particular importance is
to acknowledge the role and knowledge of women and
promote their involvement at all levels.
A long-term perspective and commitment: Integrating
food security and climate change concerns has to be
done at every level and pursued at different scales by
all concerned stake-holders (incl. donors). Due to the
urgency of the issue work has to be done on a day-to-day
basis at farm level to reach short-term outcomes. It also
has to be done with a long-term perspective and political
commitment at the landscape and country level to design
locally specific, coherent, inclusive and cohesive policy
packages.
Mutinta Mwiinga is one of many small scale farmers in Zambia who
has developed her farming and production through the Sida financed
programme Musika.
Photo: Nyokabi Kahura
managing natural resources to reflect scarcities and
their full ecological and social values.
Principle 3: Agriculture that fails to protect and
improve rural livelihoods, equity and social wellbeing
is unsustainable. Building an enabling environment
that addresses both social and environmental issues
presents major challenges. Policy and institutional
responses are needed to reduce the trade-offs between
social and environmental objectives.
Principle 4: Enhanced resilience of people, communities
and ecosystems is key to sustainable agriculture. In the
context of sustainable food and agriculture, resilience is
the capacity of agro-ecosystems, farming communities,
households or individuals to maintain or enhance system
productivity by preventing, mitigating or coping with risks,
adapting to change, and recovering from shocks.
Principle 5: Sustainable food and agriculture production
requires responsible and effective governance
mechanisms. A transition to sustainable agriculture
requires enabling policy, legal and institutional
environments that strike the right balance between private
and public sector initiatives, and ensure accountability,
equity, transparency and the rule of law.
While in theory the idea is simple, optimizing synergies
is complicated. Shifting from trade offs to synergies
requires knowledge of where synergies are possible,
and political processes that support a redistribution of
benefits and costs across different groups locally and
globally, and between the long and short terms. It also
Art.no.: sida62024en, urn:nbn:se:Sida-62024en Print: Edita 2017
SWEDISH INTERNATIONAL DE VELOPMENT COOPERATION AGENCY
Address: SE-105 25 Stockholm, Sweden. Office: Valhallavägen 199, Stockholm
Telephone: +46 (0)8-698 50 00. Telefax: +46 (0)8-20 88 64
E-mail: info@sida.se. Homepage: http://www.sida.se
WHAT SHOULD SIDA PROMOTE?
The CSA elements of transparency, ownership and stake-
holder participation, are fundamental principles in all
Sida’s operations, and should be emphasized CSA as well.
Sida as a donor agency can promote the application
of the CSA concept in several ways such as when
supporting sub-components in broad development
programmes:
• Sustainable management of natural resources
(e.g. support to projects involving land management,
biodiversity and water resources),
• capacity building (e.g. of land, agricultural, forest
institutions, local authorities, universities as well
as private sector actors and farmers),
• research, economic development and capital goods
(e.g. research, services for financial and market
access, entrepreneurship, value chain development,
migration from subsistence farming to income
generation and small-scale commercial farming).
QUESTIONS TO ASK IN THE ASSEEMENT
Identifying climate risks and opportunities early on in
the contribution cycle means they will be more effectively
addressed. As for all Sida supported programmes, the
partner should make an environmental assessment
during the programming phase that should include
considerations of relevant country strategy documents
(such as NAPAs) and specific sector assessments.
Important issues to map and analyse include the
following:
• What are the nature, magnitude and severity of
environmental degradation caused by agriculture
(e.g. erosion, deforestation and loss of biodiversity,
hydrological impacts, GHG emissions and water
pollution)?
• What are the nature, magnitude and severity of impact
on agriculture that climate change have and is likely
to have (e.g. reduced productivity and crop loss due
to droughts and floods)?
• What are the strategies used by farmers to manage
risks and their impact on the environment? Are farmers
e.g. seeking quick return solutions or do they engage
more in long term investments to maintain or enhance
land productivity? Do men and women have different
strategies?
• Will the planned activities contribute to sustainable
land use practices? Is there a risk for increased
pressure on land due to e.g. population growth,
competition for land, water and other natural
resources; illegal logging? Are policies for land
management promoting land conversion due to e.g.
urbanization?
• What obstacles are there for sustainable land
management practices? Are there e.g. available and
competent extension services, access to financial
services for investments in improvement and secure
land rights?
• Are there underlying reasons for vulnerability to
climate change and extreme events? Are there e.g.
lack of alternative/supplementary income opportunities,
dependence on crops/varieties, which are not drought
tolerant, poor access to weather information and
warning systems and poor access to insurance?
• Are there opportunities and locally available capacities?
Is there e.g. traditional knowledge, local agro-
biodiversity and varieties adapted to local conditions;
new opportunities such as income generation from
ecosystem services. It is important to consider the
different roles and capacities men and wom
more efficient and sustainable, and to shift to more sustainable consumption
and production approaches.
Climate smart agriculture is a recent concept and approach launched by FAO
in 2010 in response to the growing need for a clear and coherent strategy for
managing agriculture and food systems under climate change to reach food
security and development objectives.
WHICH ARE THE CHALLENGES?
The United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization
(FAO) estimates that by 2050, agriculture will need to
produce 60 per cent more food globally, and 100 per cent
more in developing countries, if it is to meet demand
at current levels of consumption. Food demand needs
to be met primarily from productivity increase on
existing agricultural land since opening up new land for
agriculture carries major environmental costs. Hence,
supporting the transformation to more sustainable
production practices is a prerequisite for sustainable
development.
Agriculture and food systems at every scale, from
the farm to the global, have to improve and become more
efficient in resource use (use less land, water and inputs
to produce food more sustainably together with reducing
food loss and waste) to meet the future challenges. To
achieve this they also need to adapt to climate change
and natural resource pressure, and contribute to
mitigating climate change. As these challenges are
interconnected, ideally, they have to be addressed
simultaneously.
A VICTIM OR A DRIVER OF CLIMATE CHANGE?
Climate change will affect the conditions under which
agricultural activities are undertaken. The difficulties to
predict these changes make it hard to devise and promote
precise adaptation measures. The most effective
approaches are to reduce vulnerability and increase
resilience of a given system.
Agriculture and food systems are not only victims
but also a driver of climate change. Hence a more
systematic transformation of agriculture and food
policies is required. Most of the GHG emissions of the
agricultural sector are directly driven by use of resources.
The following three production factors have particular
influence on total agricultural GHG emissions:
Area: Agriculture is a significant driver of deforestation.
Deforestation and grassland being converted to cropland
induces higher carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions, and
reduces capacity for carbon sequestration. Hence
improvement of crop yields (productivity increase)
rather than expansion of cropland should be prominent
in any mitigation strategy.
Fertilizers: Nutrients are essential for crop production
but CO 2 is generated in the production of synthetic
fertilizers, which at field level is translated into nitrous
oxide emissions 2 . Therefore it is essential to improve
fertilizer efficiency and management, incl. switching
from synthetic to organic fertilizers.
Livestock: – is a significant source of methane (CH4) 3
and nitrous oxide (N 2 O) emissions. It also contributes
to emissions indirectly through the production of fodder
used for livestock. Considering the increasing global
Climate Smart Agriculture
INFORMATION BRIEF MARCH 2017
Climate Smart Agriculture
1 Including crops, livestock, fisheries and forestry.
2 Nitrous oxide is emitted when nitrogen is added to the soil through
the use of synthetic fertilizers. Nitrous oxide is also emitted during
the breakdown of nitrogen in livestock manure and urine.
3 The comparative impact of CH4 on climate change is more than
25 times greater than CO 2.
efficiency in livestock production is necessary.
WHAT ABOUT THE PRESENT FOOD PRODUCTION?
The current trajectory of growth in agricultural production
and productivity is unsustainable. Agriculture and food
production on land and in aquatic systems already
dominates much of the global terrestrial surface, and
has major negative impacts on the Earth’s ecosystems.
Earlier emphasis on individual agricultural sectors
(e.g. crops, livestock, forestry, fisheries, and aquaculture)
with a primary focus on productivity improvements has
created a “silo syndrome” in which the different sectors
compete with each other for space, political support
and natural resources, often resulting in sub-optimal
allocation and management of resources.
HOW CAN RESOURCES BE USED
AND PRODUCED BETTER?
Agriculture and food systems utilize a diverse range of
resources to produce a diverse range of outputs (e.g.
crops, meat, dairy) but also income and employment
opportunities for farmers, laborers and the agro-industry
as well as for the non-farm rural economy. These
different outputs are equally important from a food
security perspective.
Resource efficiency needs to be improved in every
type of food system in order to maintain production
systems within critical planetary limits; preserve the
ecosystem services on which agricultural production
relies, such as pollination, reduce land degradation,
biodiversity loss and pressure on water use and quality.
No matter what the system or scale is, there can be
important improvements in management practices.
Most of these improvements can be achieved by applying
various already existing techniques such as enhancing
soil quality, improving soil biodiversity, regulating carbon,
oxygen and plant nutrient cycles, and enhancing
resilience to drought and flooding.
WHAT IS CLIMATE SMART AGRICULTURE?
Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) appeared as a concept
on the policy agenda in 2009 and comes from an increased
concern within the global development community in
general, and within the FAO in particular, regarding
the impacts of climate change on global food security,
in combination with a steadily growing population,
urbanization and consumption growth trends.
The definition of CSA, as agreed upon by many
international institutions such as the UN, IFAD, the
World Bank and CGIAR, is that it integrates the three
dimensions of sustainable development (economic, social
and environmental) by jointly addressing food security
and climate challenges and is as such composed of
three main pillars or goals:
1. Sustainably increasing agricultural productivity
to support equitable increases in incomes, food
security and development;
2. Adapting and building resilience to climate change
from the farm to national levels;
3. Reducing and/or removing greenhouse gases
emissions (GHG), where possible.
CSA is as such not a new agricultural system, nor a new
set of practices. What is new is the integration of the
three pillars/goals.
WHICH ARE THE CRITICAL VIEWS?
CSA is based on the idea of a ‘triple win’ capitalizing
on the synergies between food security, adaptation and
mitigation advocating an approach focusing on all three.
When it comes to how this is interpreted by various actors,
or how it translates into action at local level, it is however
not as straightforward. Critical voices have argued that
CSA leans on a poorly understood relationship between
mitigation, adaptation and food, and hence serves to
justify nearly any agricultural practice to be climate
smart. Some civil society organisations further argues
that CSA displaces mitigation responsibility from the
global level and re-scales it onto local populations
by situating the problem on the present and current
agricultural practices. Further, within the civil society
organisations there is some critique based on the
interpretation of the concept and that it legitimises
agro-industrial expansion.
HOW TO REACH SUSTAINABLE FOOD AND
AGRICULTURE PRODUCTION?
In order to make agriculture more productive and
sustainable, the FAO has suggested five interconnected
principles for the transition toward sustainable food
and agriculture. They have the ambition to balance the
social, economic and environmental dimensions of
sustainability in agriculture, and provide a basis for
developing policies, strategies, regulations and
incentives to guide the transition to sustainability, while
promoting resilience through an adaptive response to
shocks and opportunities.
Principle 1: Improving efficiency (productivity) in the
use of resources is crucial to sustainable agriculture.
A sustainable approach to intensification seeks to raise
productivity through a balanced use of resources and
inputs, harnessing the potential benefits of ecosystem
services.
Principle 2: Sustainability requires direct action to
conserve, protect and enhance natural resources. Policies
and institutions will need to be strengthened in order
to provide the enabling environment and incentives for
interventions, and institutions that are geared to capturing
synergies rather than maximizing individual objectives.
A practical approach, related to CSA, that has gained
momentum during the last couple of years is the
Agroecology concept. According to FAO, Agroecology
is a scientific discipline, a set of practices and a social
movement. As a science, it studies how different
components of the agroecosystem interact. As a set
of practices, it seeks sustainable farming systems that
optimize and stabilize yields. As a social movement,
it pursues multifunctional roles for agriculture,
promotes social justice, nurtures identity and culture,
and strengthens the economic viability of rural areas.
IMPORTANT TO KEEP IN MIND
The national ownership: The National Adaptation
Programmes of Action (NAPA), and at a more aggregate
level the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs),
prepared by the least developed countries provide a
rich panorama of adaptation priority measures. Many of
these priority projects are linked to agriculture. These
projects are of special interest and relevance because
they have been designed and prioritized by the countries
themselves.
CSA is not prescriptive: The recommended approach to
CSA is to identify and promote the most suitable strategy
for local conditions. Site-specific analyses are needed
to identify potential practices under various climatic
conditions. This does not imply that every practice and
measure, every farmer, in every field will contribute to
all three objectives.
The involvement of all stakeholders: Addressing food
security and climate change requires concerted and
coordinated involvement and action of many actors,
farmers, private sector, and public actors national and
international and civil society organisations. This can
be especially challenging as they are different and may
have conflicting objectives. Of particular importance is
to acknowledge the role and knowledge of women and
promote their involvement at all levels.
A long-term perspective and commitment: Integrating
food security and climate change concerns has to be
done at every level and pursued at different scales by
all concerned stake-holders (incl. donors). Due to the
urgency of the issue work has to be done on a day-to-day
basis at farm level to reach short-term outcomes. It also
has to be done with a long-term perspective and political
commitment at the landscape and country level to design
locally specific, coherent, inclusive and cohesive policy
packages.
Mutinta Mwiinga is one of many small scale farmers in Zambia who
has developed her farming and production through the Sida financed
programme Musika.
Photo: Nyokabi Kahura
managing natural resources to reflect scarcities and
their full ecological and social values.
Principle 3: Agriculture that fails to protect and
improve rural livelihoods, equity and social wellbeing
is unsustainable. Building an enabling environment
that addresses both social and environmental issues
presents major challenges. Policy and institutional
responses are needed to reduce the trade-offs between
social and environmental objectives.
Principle 4: Enhanced resilience of people, communities
and ecosystems is key to sustainable agriculture. In the
context of sustainable food and agriculture, resilience is
the capacity of agro-ecosystems, farming communities,
households or individuals to maintain or enhance system
productivity by preventing, mitigating or coping with risks,
adapting to change, and recovering from shocks.
Principle 5: Sustainable food and agriculture production
requires responsible and effective governance
mechanisms. A transition to sustainable agriculture
requires enabling policy, legal and institutional
environments that strike the right balance between private
and public sector initiatives, and ensure accountability,
equity, transparency and the rule of law.
While in theory the idea is simple, optimizing synergies
is complicated. Shifting from trade offs to synergies
requires knowledge of where synergies are possible,
and political processes that support a redistribution of
benefits and costs across different groups locally and
globally, and between the long and short terms. It also
SWEDISH INTERNATIONAL DE VELOPMENT COOPERATION AGENCY
Address: SE-105 25 Stockholm, Sweden. Office: Valhallavägen 199, Stockholm
Telephone: +46 (0)8-698 50 00. Telefax: +46 (0)8-20 88 64
E-mail: info@sida.se. Homepage: http://www.sida.se
WHAT SHOULD SIDA PROMOTE?
The CSA elements of transparency, ownership and stake-
holder participation, are fundamental principles in all
Sida’s operations, and should be emphasized CSA as well.
Sida as a donor agency can promote the application
of the CSA concept in several ways such as when
supporting sub-components in broad development
programmes:
• Sustainable management of natural resources
(e.g. support to projects involving land management,
biodiversity and water resources),
• capacity building (e.g. of land, agricultural, forest
institutions, local authorities, universities as well
as private sector actors and farmers),
• research, economic development and capital goods
(e.g. research, services for financial and market
access, entrepreneurship, value chain development,
migration from subsistence farming to income
generation and small-scale commercial farming).
QUESTIONS TO ASK IN THE ASSEEMENT
Identifying climate risks and opportunities early on in
the contribution cycle means they will be more effectively
addressed. As for all Sida supported programmes, the
partner should make an environmental assessment
during the programming phase that should include
considerations of relevant country strategy documents
(such as NAPAs) and specific sector assessments.
Important issues to map and analyse include the
following:
• What are the nature, magnitude and severity of
environmental degradation caused by agriculture
(e.g. erosion, deforestation and loss of biodiversity,
hydrological impacts, GHG emissions and water
pollution)?
• What are the nature, magnitude and severity of impact
on agriculture that climate change have and is likely
to have (e.g. reduced productivity and crop loss due
to droughts and floods)?
• What are the strategies used by farmers to manage
risks and their impact on the environment? Are farmers
e.g. seeking quick return solutions or do they engage
more in long term investments to maintain or enhance
land productivity? Do men and women have different
strategies?
• Will the planned activities contribute to sustainable
land use practices? Is there a risk for increased
pressure on land due to e.g. population growth,
competition for land, water and other natural
resources; illegal logging? Are policies for land
management promoting land conversion due to e.g.
urbanization?
• What obstacles are there for sustainable land
management practices? Are there e.g. available and
competent extension services, access to financial
services for investments in improvement and secure
land rights?
• Are there underlying reasons for vulnerability to
climate change and extreme events? Are there e.g.
lack of alternative/supplementary income opportunities,
dependence on crops/varieties, which are not drought
tolerant, poor access to weather information and
warning systems and poor access to insurance?
• Are there opportunities and locally available capacities?
Is there e.g. traditional knowledge, local agro-
biodiversity and varieties adapted to local conditions;
new opportunities such as income generation from
ecosystem services. It is important to consider the
different roles and capacities men and wom
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