تدریس

بخشیدن، آمرزیدن

amplify
augment, deepen شدت یا عمق بخشیدن
abject despicable, servile

پست، خفیف، رقت انگیز

alleviate
abate, relieve کاهیدن، تسکین دادن
admonish counsel, reprove

سرزنش کردن، انتقاد کردن

abate
moderate, decrease کاستن، کم شدن
adherent follower, disciple

تابع، پیرو

abound
flourish, proliferate فراوان بودن، وفور داشتن
awkward rude, blundering

سخت و زحمت دار، معذب کننده

abortive
vain, unproductive بی ثمر

abolish
abrogate, annul

ملغی کردن
allay pacify, soothe

تلطیف کردن، نرم کردن

alien
foreigner, outsider بیگانه
acumen awareness, brilliance

تیزهوشی، فراست

authentic
accurate, credible موثق، معتبر
accord agreement, harmony

آکورد، هماهنگی، هارمونی

adhere
comply, observe قبول و پیروی کردن
axiom adage, truism

حقیقت آشکار، اصل

arraign
incriminate, indict احضار کردن
audacity boldness, courage

بی پروایی، جرئت

ascend
climb, escalate بالا رفتن
adversity misfortune, calamity

بدبختی، فلاکت

adamant
stubborn, inflexible یک دنده، غیرمنعطف
acrimony harshness, bitterness

تندی، شدت

adjunct
joined, added الحاقی، ضمیمه
abash disconcert, rattle

دستپاچه یا شرمنده کردن

abjure
forsake, renounce عهد شکستن، برائت جستن
allure entice, fascinate

جذب کردن، شیفتن
کلمات مترادف انگلیسی که با حرف B شروع میشود


کلمه اصلی مترادف انگلیسی معنی
busy active, engaged

مشغول، درگیر

bustle
commotion, tumult شلوغی، هیاهو
brittle breakable, crisp

شکننده

bold
adventurous بی باک، جسورانه، ماجراجو
boisterous clamorous, rowdy

پرسروصدا (معمولا به شکل منفی)

blunt
dull, insensitive کرخت، بی حس
bleak grim, austere

پوچ، غم انگیز

bind
predicament بدبختی، شرایط سخت
bewitching alluring, charming

خوش آمدنی، افسونگر

benign
favorable, friendly دوست داشتنی، نیکو
benevolent benign, generous

نیک سرشت، خوب

befogged
becloud, dim مبهم، مختل
bawdy erotic, coarse

اروتیک

batty
insane, silly احمق، دیوانه
base vulgar, coarse

ناهنجار

barrier
barricade, obstacle مانع
barren desolate, sterile

بی ثمر، تهی

baroque
florid, gilt باروک، دارای طلاکاری و گلگون
barbarous frustrate, perplex

وحشی، گیج و بهت زده

baffle
astound, faze

مبهوت کردن
بیشتر بخوانید:کلمات متضاد انگلیسی
کلمات مترادف انگلیسی که با حرف C شروع میشود
کلمه اصلی مترادف انگلیسی معنی
comic clown, jester

دلقک، مضحک، خنده دار

consequence
effect, outcome پیامد
compassion kindness. Sympathy

همدلی، همدردی

creation
formation, foundation ایجاد، پایه، شکل گیری
cunning acute, smart

زیرک، حقه باز، باهوش

contrary
dissimilar, conflicting مغایر، مخالف
captivate beguile, bewitch

اسیر کردن، افسون کردن

catholic
generic, liberal لیبرال، روشن فکر
cease terminate, desist

متوقف کردن

consent
agree, permit موافقت کردن، اجازه دادن
cement plaster, mortar

گچ، سیمان

conceit
egotism, immodesty خودرایی، غرور، خودپسندی
comprise include, contain

شامل شدن، تشکیل شده بودن از

callous
obdurate, unfeeling سنگدل، بی عاطفه
consolidate centralize, fortify

یکپارچه کردن، محکم ساختن

celebrated
acclaimed, lionized ستوده، مشهور
calm harmonious, unruffled

آرام، هماهنگ

cheap
competitive, inexpensive ارزان
chastise

punish, admonish


تنبیه کردن، مجازات کردن
consolidate solidify, strengthen

یکپارچه کردن، تقویت کردن، محکم ساختن

condemn
castigate, chide محکوم کردن
calamity adversity, misfortune

سانحه، بدبختی، فلاکت

contradict
deny, oppose تضاد داشتن
camouflage cloak, disguise

استتار کردن

contempt
scorn, disregard اهانت، تحقیر
captivate charm, fascinate

افسون کردن، اغوا کردن، جذب کردن

calculating
canny, devious حسابگر، زیرک
concur approve, agree

موافق بودن، هم جهت بودن

clandestine
covert, furtive مخفی، پوشیده
compact bunched, thick

فشرده، ضخیم

compress
abbreviate, shrink فشرده کردن، متراکم کردن
carnal earthly, fleshly

زمینی، مادی

censure
rebuke, reprimand سرزنش و انتقاد شدید کردن
calumny defamation, aspersion

رسوایی، هتک حرمت، بدنامی

courtesy
generosity, reverence شعور و ادب
confident bold, undaunted

جسور و محکم

conspicuous
prominent, obvious آشکار، مشهود
concord agreement, accord

توافق، پیمان، موافقت

captivity
imprisonment, confinement اسارت، گرفتاری
candid blunt, bluff

رک و بی پرده

coarse
bawdy, boorish زشت و قبیح
concede yield, permit

واگذار کردن، اذعان کردن

chaste
virtuous, pure خالص، نیکو، بی شیله پیله
capable competent, able

توانا

classic
simple, typical

کلاسیک، ساده
مترادف کلماتی که با حرف D شروع می شوند
کلمه اصلی مترادف انگلیسی معنی

dissuade
remonstrate, counsel باز داشتن، منصرف کردن
denounce blame, boycott

سرزنش کردن، بایکوت کردن

destructive
catastrophic, pernicious مخرب، فاجعه بار
decipher interpret, reveal

رمزگشایی کردن، فاش کردن

deceit
deception, artifice فریب، حیله، خدعه
deride mock, taunt

تمسخر کردن، دست انداختن

decay
collapse, decompose فساد، خرابی، زوال
docile pliable, pliant

نرم خو، تسلیم شونده، فرمان پذیر

defile
contaminate, pollute آلاییدن، آلوده کردن
deliberate cautious, intentional

عمدی، تعمدی، آگاهانه

dense
opaque, piled مات، مبهم، کدر
defray spend, pay

تسویه کردن، پرداختن

deprive
despoil, divest محروم کردن، سلب کردن
derogatory sarcastic, critical

گستاخانه، بی ادبانه

dwarf
diminutive, petite کوچک، خرد
disdain detest, despise

اهانت، تحقیر کردن، نفرت داشتن

demolish
ruin, devastate نابود کردن
despair depression, misery

بدبختی، بیچارگی
کلمات مترادف انگلیسی که با حرف E شروع میشود
کلمه اصلی مترادف انگلیسی معنی
eclipse diminution, dimming

افول، کاهش در اندازه یا میزان یا اهمیت

encumbrance
hindrance, obstacle بار، مانع، چیزی که شخصی یا چیزی را عقب نگه می دارد
eager keen, acquisitive

مشتاق، علاقه مند

equivocal
uncertain, hazy مبهم
eccentric strange, abnormal

غیرعادی، عجیب و غریب

epitome
precise, example نمونه، مثال
enormous colossal, mammoth

بزرگ، عظیم

eloquence
expression, fluency شیوایی، فصاحت، روانی
ecstasy delight, exultation

شادی و شعف

eradicate
destroy, exterminate حذف کردن، نابود کردن
efface destroy, obliterate

نابود کردن

endeavor
undertake, aspire

تلاش کردن، عهده دار شدن
کلمات مترادف انگلیسی که با حرف F شروع میشود
کلمه اصلی مترادف انگلیسی معنی

frugality
economy, providence صرفه جویی، اقتصادی بودن
feud strife, quarrel

دعوا، درگیری

frivolous
petty, worthless بیهوده، بی معنی
frantic violent, agitated

آشفته، عصبانی و خشن، بهم ریخته

fragile
weak, infirm ضعیف، شکننده
fluctuate deflect, vacillate

نوسان کردن، بالا و پایین رفتن

ferocious
cruel, fierce خشمگین، وحشی
feeble weak, frail

ضعیف و شکننده

fanatical
narrow-minded, biased تندرو، جبه دار، کسی که تبعیض قائل می شود
falter stumble, demur

لغززیدن، تزلزل پیدا کردن

fallacy
delusion, mistake غلط، کاذب، اشتباه
forsake desert, renounce

رها کردن، ترک کردن

fabricate
construct, produce

ساختن، تولید کردن
مترادف کلمات انگلیسی که با حرف G شروع می شوند
کلمه اصلی مترادف انگلیسی معنی
gloomy bleak, cloudy

غم افزا

genuine


absolute, factual
واقعی، حقیقی
gather converge, huddle

جمع آوردن، گرد آوردن

glut
stuff, satiate پرکردن، اشباع کردن
guile cunning, deceit

زیرکی، مکر و حیله

gracious
courteous, beneficent باوقار، بزرگ منش
grisly disgusting, atrocious

وحشتناک، مهیب، ترسناک

gloom
obscurity, darkness غم و اندوه، تاریکی
glory dignity, renown

شکوه و جلال، وقار

gorgeous
magnificent, dazzling فریبنده، دوست داشتنی
grudge hatred, aversion

کینه، تنفر

generosity
altruism, bounty

سخاوت
کلمات هم معنی انگلیسی که با حرف H شروع می شوند
کلمه اصلی مترادف انگلیسی معنی
honor adoration, reverence

حرمت، شرف و افتخار

humility
resignation, fawning تواضع
harass irritate, molest

اذیت و آزار کردن

hideous
frightful, shocking زشت و زننده، شوکه کننده و ترسناک
hypocrisy deception, pharisaism

دورویی

humble
meek, timid متواضع، محفوظ به حیا
hamper retard, prevent

پیشگیری کردن، مانع شدن

harmony
conformity, amicability هماهنگی، یکپارچگی
hapless unfortunate, ill-fated

بدشانس، بد اقبال

hazard
peril, danger خطر، ناملایمت
hasty abrupt, impetuous

عجولانه، ناگهانی

haughty
arrogant, pompous متکبر و خودخواه
hamstring cripple, debilitate

از کار انداختن، فلج کردن

heretic
non-conformist, secularist

خلاف اندیش، دگراندیش
کلمات مترادف انگلیسی که با حرف I شروع میشود
کلمه اصلی مترادف انگلیسی معنی
impartial just, unbiased

منصف، بی طرف

immaculate
exquisite, impeccable معصوم، منزه
immense huge, enormous

عظیم، بزرگ

infernal
damned, accurse ملعون
inevitable unavoidable, ascertained

اجتناب ناپذیر، مقدر

insinuate
allude, hint تلقین کردن، به شکل ناخودآگاه القا کردن
insipid tasteless, vapid

بی مزه

impair
diminish, deteriorate ناقص کردن، کاستن، کم کردن
imminent impending, brewing

حتمی، غریب الوقوع

ingenuous
undisguised, naive صاف و ساده، ساده لوح
irrepressible irresistible, unconfined

مهارناپذیر، غیرقابل کنترل

invective
accusation, censure دشنام، اتهام زدن
immerse submerge, involve

داخل کردن، غرق در … کردن

inclination
disposition, affection تمایل، سرشت
incongruous inappropriate, absurd

نامناسب، ناجور

indigent
destitute, impoverished بی چیز، بسیار فقیر
indifferent equitable, haughty

بی تفاوت

impediment
hurdle, obstruction مانع، جلودار
infringe violate, encroach

تخطی کردن، تخلف کردن

instill
inculcate, inject تلقین کردن، القا کردن، تزریق کردن
impulsive flaky, impetuous

ناگهانی، حساب نشده

insolvent
indigent, destitute بی پول، کسی که هشتش گرو نهش باشد
invincible unconquerable, impregnable

شکست ناپذیر

immunity
prerogative, privilege مصونیت، مزیت و امتیاز و برتری
intricate tangled, complicated

پیچیده، غامض

impious
irreligious, unholy خدانشناس، نامقدس، بی خدا
impenitent uncontrite, obdurate

ناپشیمان

interesting
enchanting, riveting جالب
intrinsic genuine, fundamental

اصلی، اصل، حقیقی

insipid
tedious, prosaic بی روح، بی مزه، خسته کننده
incompetent inefficient, unskilled

بی کفایت، کم بازده

impute
attribute, ascribe نسبت دادن
intrigue scheme, conspiracy

دسیسه، توطئه، فتنه

immaculate
unsullied, spotless

پاک، منزه
مترادف کلماتی که با حرف J شروع می شوند
کلمه اصلی مترادف انگلیسی معنی
jubilant rejoicing, triumphant

فرخنده، شادمان، سرمست (از پیروزی)

judicious
thoughtful, prudent مصلحت اندیش، با تدبیر، دارای قوه قضاوت
jaded tired, exhausted

خسته

just
honest, impartial منصف، بی طرف
juvenile young, tender

جوان، کم سن

jovial
frolicsome, cheerful خوش گذران، سبک روح، خوشحال
jejune dull, boring

خسته کننده، کسل کننده

justify
defend, exculpate

توجیه کردن، دفاع کردن
مترادف کلماتی که با حرف K شروع می شوند
کلمه اصلی مترادف انگلیسی معنی
knotty complicated, difficult

در هم، پیچیده

knell
death knell, last blow ناقوس، ناقوس عزا
knave dishonest, scoundrel

رند، حیله گر

kindred
relation, species همانند، هم نوع
keen sharp, poignant

تیز
کلمات هم معنی انگلیسی با حرف L شروع می شوند
کلمه اصلی مترادف انگلیسی معنی

luscious
palatable, delicious خوشمزه، لذیذ
lure attract, entice

جذب کردن، فریفتن

lunacy
delusion, insanity دیوانگی
lucid sound, rational

منطقی، واضح و شفاف

linger
loiter, prolong درنگ کردن
liberal magnanimous, generous

لیبرال، آزاد و رها

liable
accountable, bound مسئول
lenient compassionate, merciful

مهربان، رحیم، دلسوز

lax
slack, careless بی دقت، اهمال کار، سهل انگار
lavish abundant, excessive

فراوان، ولخرج

languid
sluggish, apathetic

سست و بی حال، تنبل
بیشتر بخوانید:افعال زبان انگلیسی
کلمات مترادف انگلیسی که با حرف M شروع میشود
کلمه اصلی مترادف انگلیسی معنی

mandatory
imperative, requisite الزامی
monotonous irksome, tedious

یکنواخت، خسته کننده

malice
vengefulness, grudge کینه، بدخواهی
munificent liberal, hospitable

سخاوتمند، بخشنده

molest
harass, tease اذیت و آزار کردن
mitigate alleviate, relieve

تلطیف کردن، سبک ساختن

mutual
joint, identical دوطرفه، یکسان، مشابه
mutinous recalcitrant, insurgent

متمرد، سرکش

miraculous
marvelous, extraordinary معجزه آسا، فراطبیعی
momentous notable, eventful

مهم، قابل توجه

mollify
appease, assuage فرو نشاندن، تلطیف کردن
modest humble, courteous

متواضع، افتاده، با حیا

masculine
gallant, strapping آقامنش، مردانه
merit stature, asset

شایستگی، استحقاق، سزاواری

morbid
nasty, macabre وحشتبار، چندش آور
murky dusky, dreary

تیره
مترادف کلماتی که با حرف N شروع می شوند
کلمه اصلی مترادف انگلیسی معنی

nullify
cancel, annul باطل، لغو، یا خنثی کردن
novice tyro, beginner

تازه کار، شاگرد، مبتدی

numerous
profuse, various متعدد
niggardly miser, covetous

طماع، خسیس، بخیل

nonchalant
indifferent, negligent بی تفاوت
nimble prompt, brisk

سریع، تند و تیز

noxious
baneful, injurious

مضر، صدمه زننده
مترادف کلماتی که با حرف O شروع می شوند
کلمه اصلی مترادف انگلیسی معنی

ominous
menacing, foreboding شوم، تهدیدآمیز
oracular cryptic, vague

گنگ، مبهم

obtain
access, inherit به دست آوردن، دست پیدا کردن
obstinate stubborn, adamant

کله شق، لجباز

ordain
order, impose منصوب کردن، گماشتن، دستور دادن
occult latent, ambiguous

مرموز، مبهم

outbreak
eruption, insurrection وقوع ناگهانی
obliging complaisant, willing

حرف شنو، سر به راه، مطیع، مایل

offspring
descendant فرزند، زاده
offensive abhorrent, obnoxious

توهین آمیز، برخورنده

opaque
obscure, shady مات، مبهم
obvious evident, apparent

مشخص، بدیهی

odious
malevolent, obnoxious نفرت انگیز، بد
outrage offence, maltreatment

خشم و برآشفتگی

obstruct
impede, prevent مانع شدن، پیشگیری کردن
ornamental decorative, adorned

تزئینی، دکوری

optimist
idealist خوشبین، مثبت نگر، ایده آلیست
obscure arcane, vague

محو و مبهم (کردن)
کلمات مترادف انگلیسی که با حرف P شروع میشود
کلمه اصلی مترادف انگلیسی معنی
prudence vigilance, discretion

احتیاط، ملاحظه

propagate
inseminate, fecundate انتشار دادن، رواج دادن
prompt precise, punctual

سریع و بی درنگ (سر وقت)

progress
pace, betterment پیشرفت، بهبود
predicament plight, dilemma

مخمصه، بدبختی، شرایط سخت

precarious
doubtful, insecure پرمخاطره، نامطمئن
pompous haughty, arrogant

متکبر، پرافاده، پرنخوت

placid
tranquil, calm آرام، متین
perverse petulant, obstinate

کج خلق، گستاخ

perturbed
flustered, anxious نگران، آشفته
pertness flippancy, impudence

بی اهمیت یا بی ارزش بودن

persuade
cajole, impress قانع کردن، تحت تاثیر قرار دادن
peevish perverse, sullen

عبوس، اوقات تلخ، ترش رو

peerless
matchless, unrivalled بی همتا، بی رقیب
paramount foremost, eminent

برتر، سرآمد، بلندمرتبه

pamper
flatter, indulge لوس کردن، آسان گرفتن
pacify appease, chasten

آرام کردن
مترادف کلماتی که با حرف Q شروع می شوند
کلمه اصلی مترادف انگلیسی معنی
quibble equivocate, prevaricate

بحث کردن، مبهم گویی، دوپهلو حرف زدن

quell
subdue, reduce فرونشاندن، کم کردن، تسکین دادن
quaint queer, strange

عجیب و غریب

quack
impostor, deceiver دکتر قلابی، کلاهبردار
quarantine seclude, screen

قرنطینه کردن
مترادف کلماتی که با حرف R شروع می شوند
کلمه اصلی مترادف انگلیسی معنی
remnant residue, piece

تکه، باقی مانده

rapidity
quickness, velocity سرعت
redeem recover, liberate

آزاد کردن، رها کردن (از)

rustic
rural, uncivilized روستایی، نامتمدن
ruthless remorseless, inhumane

بی پروا

reluctant
cautious, averse بی میل، بی رغبت، مخالف
reason acumen, bounds

عقل و منطق

rout
vanquish, overthrow شکست دادن، منهدم کردن
raid incursion, foray

یورش، تهاجم، حمله

ravage
destroy, ruin از بین بردن، تار و مار کردن
resentment displeasure, wrath

خشم، غضب، دلخوری

remorse
regret, penitence پشیمانی، عذاب وجدان
reverence respect, esteem

احترام، تکریم، عزت

ratify
consent, approve اجازه دادن، تایید دادن
remonstrate censure, protest

اعتراض کردن

rectify
amend, remedy اصلاح کردن، درست کردن
retract recant, withdraw

عقب کشیدن، حرف خود را پس گرفتن

restrain
detain, confine حبس کردن، زندانی کردن، جلوی کسی را گرفتن
rescind annul, abrogate

لغو کردن، منسوخ کردن، فسخ کردن

rebellious
restless, attacking

تهاجمی، سرکش، یاغی
کلمات هم معنی انگلیسی که با حرف S شروع میشوند
کلمه اصلی مترادف انگلیسی معنی
succinct concise, terse

کوتاه، مختصر، موجز

slander
defame, malign تهمت زدن، افترا زدن
subsequent consequent, following

متعاقب، بعدی، آتی

solicit
entreat, implore تقاضا کردن، درخواست کردن، تمنا کردن
substantial considerable, solid

مهم و اساسی، قابل توجه

subterfuge
deceit, stratagem ترفند، حقه
sneer mock, scorn

مسخره کردن، نیشخند زدن

sterile
barren, impotent ناتوان، نازا، بایر
sacred cherished, divine

مقدس

sarcastic
ironical, derisive طعنه آمیز
stain blemish, tarnish

لکه دار کردن، ناقص و عیب دار کردن

servile
slavish, docile مطیع، بله قربان گو
startled frightened, shocked

ترسیده، غافلگیر شده، شوکه شده

spurious
fake, counterfeit فیک، تقلبی
shrewd cunning, craftly

زیرک، حقه باز، باهوش

spry
nimble, brisk چابک، تند و تیز
subvert demolish, sabotage

تار و مار کردن، به هم ریختن، نابود کردن

sporadic
intermittent, scattered متناوب، پراکنده
successful propitious, felicitous

موفق، مناسب

superficial
partial, shallow سطحی
sympathy tenderness, harmony

همدردی، همزادپنداری

system
scheme, entity سیستم، سامان
savage wild, untamed

وحشی، غیراهلی

Stupor
lethargy, unconsciousness گیجی، منگی
squalid dirty, filthy

کثیف، زننده

shabby
miserable, impoverished درب و داغان
scanty scarce, insufficient

کمتر از حد نیاز، ناکافی

saucy
impudent, insolent گستاخ، بی ادب
sublime magnificent, eminent

والا، متعالی، بزرگ

sycophant
parasite, flatterer چاپلوس، متملق
stranger immigrant, guest

غریب، غریبه
مترادف کلماتی که با حرف T شروع می شوند
کلمه اصلی مترادف انگلیسی معنی
tedious wearisome, irksome

خسته کننده

taboo
prohibited, banned تابو، ممنوع
throng assembly, crowd

جمعیت، جماعت، گروه

tenacious
stubborn سرسخت، مصر، مصمم
taciturn reserved, silent

کم حرف، خاموش

thrifty
frugal, prudent صرفه جو، حسابگر، محتاط
terse incisive, compact

مختصر، کوتاه، موجز

tumultuous
violent, riotous پرهیاهو، پر سر و صدا
tremble vibrate

لرزیدن

transparent
diaphanous روشن، شفاف، مشخص
timid diffident, coward

خجالتی، سر به زیر

trivial
trifling, insignificant بی اهمیت، پیش پا افتاده
treacherous dishonest, duplicitous

خطرناک، ناامن، فریبکار

tranquil
peaceful, composed آرام، دارای آرامش، خونسرد
tenement apartment, digs

آپارتمان یا ساختمان اجاره ای

temperate
cool, moderate معتدل
tame(d) compliant, subdued

رام شده، تسلیم

transient
temporal, transitory موقتی، گذرا
tranquil amicable, calm

آرام

trenchant
assertive, forceful

نافذ، قاطع
مترادف کلماتی که با حرف U شروع می شوند
کلمه اصلی مترادف انگلیسی معنی
urchin foundling, orphan

بچه خیابانی، یتیم، بچه بی صاحب

utterly
completely, entirely به شکل کامل، کاملا
urge incite, implore

تحریک کردن، درخواست کردن، وا داشتن به

umbrage
chagrin, offense دلخوری، آزردگی، بر خوردن
uncouth awkward, ungraceful

نامتمدن، بی ادب، چیپ
کلمات مترادف انگلیسی که با حرف V شروع میشود
کلمه اصلی مترادف انگلیسی معنی
vilify malign, slur, defame

تهمت زدن، بدنام کردن

vivacious
spirited, energetic پرانرژی، سرحال
vivid eloquent, lucid

درخشان، روشن، واضح

vain
arrogant, egoistic مغرور، متکبر
valor bravery, prowess

شجاعت

vicious
corrupt, obnoxious خبیث، فاسد، بد
virtue ethic, morality

راستی و درستی، بااخلاقی، نیکی

venom
poison, malevolence سم، شر و بدی
venerable esteemed, honored

قابل احترام، محترم

vagrant
wander, roaming ولگرد، سرگردان
vouch confirm, consent

تایید کردن، اجازه دادن

vanity
conceit, pretension غرور و تکبر، دورویی
veteran ingenious, experienced

قدیمی و با تجربه، مجرب

vigilant
cautious, alert

هوشیار و با احتیاط
مترادف کلماتی که با حرف W، Y یا Z شروع می شوند
کلمه اصلی مترادف انگلیسی معنی
wield exert, employ

به کار گرفتن، استفاده کردن

winsome
beautiful, comely جذاب، گیرا، زیبا
wane decline, dwindle

کاهش یافتن

wed
marry ازدواج کردن (با)
wan pale, faded

کم رنگ، ضعیف

waive
relinquish, remove دست کشیدن (از)، صرف نظر کردن
wilt wither, perish

پژمردن، سست شدن

wary
cautious, circumspect هشیار، آگاه، حواس جمع
wile trickery, artifice

حقه

wicked
vicious, immoral غیراخلاقی، خبیث
yoke connect, harness

وصل کردن، بستن

yield
surrender, abdicate تسلیم شدن، رها کردن، وا دادن
yearn languish, crave

طلبیدن، خواستن

yell
shout, shriek داد زدن
zig-zag oblique, wayward

زیگزاگ، مورب

zest
delight, enthusiasm اشتیاق، شوق و ذوق
zenith summit, apex

اوج، قله

zeal
eagerness, fervor

شور و اشتیاق
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۱۴۰۲/۰۶/۱۷ در ۹:۲۹ ق.ظ

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پاسخ

SWST Teaching Unit 1 Slide Set 2
If we look at still smaller units of structure, we discover
the elemental and organic composition of wood.
The three major elements of wood are carbon, oxygen,
and hydrogen. They are combined in complex molecules
that are then joined into polymers. These polymers
provide the structural integrity of wood. In addition,
wood contains small quantities of other orga

4.(a) The Income Tax Appellate Tribunal, through its President, may
make a Reference in the form of Statement of Case under Section
257 of the Income Tax Act, 1961, read with Order XLV of the Rules
containing numbered paragraphs setting out all relevant facts and
proceedings, having a bearing on the question(s) raised in
chronological order with relevant dates. It shall contain an account
of the conflict in the decisions of the High Courts necessitating the
Reference.
(b) Along with the order of Reference, the following documents shall
be submitted:
(i) A copy of the order of the Income Tax Officer;
(ii) Memorandum of appeal to the Appellate Assistant
Commissioner;
(iii) A copy of the order of the Appellate Assistant Commissioner;
(iv) Memorandum of appeal to the Appellate Tribunal;
(v) A copy of the order of the Income Tax Appellate Tribunal
under Section 254 of the Income Tax Act, 1961;
(vi) A copy of the application for reference under Section 256 of
the Income Tax Act, 1961; and
(vii) Such other documents, as, in the opinion of the Income Tax
Appellate Tribunal, may be required by the Supreme Court at
the hearing of the reference.
(c) The Tribunal shall transmit to the Court three copies of the
transcript in English of the documents, one of which shall be duly
authenticated.
Note
The References shall be forwarded to, and received by, the
Registrar of the Court.
Petition for Special Leave to Appeal
1.(a) The petition for special leave to appeal invoking the extra-ordinary
appellate jurisdiction under Article 136 of the Constitution read
with Order XXI of the Rules shall be filed in Form No. 28. No
separate application for interim relief need be filed and interim
prayer, if any, be incorporated in the Form.
(b) The petition shall be accompanied by-
60 (i) a certified copy of the judgment or order appealed from; and
(ii) an affidavit in support of the statement of facts contained in
the petition.
(c) It shall be accompanied by list of dates in chronological order with
relevant material facts or events pertaining to each of the dates.
(d) It shall be confined only to the pleadings before the Court/Tribunal
whose order is challenged. Additional grounds may, however, be
urged with due notice to the respondent and with leave of the Court.
(e) (i) Copies of such petition/documents, which were part of the record
in the case before the Court/Tribunal below, as may be necessary to
answer the question of law arising for consideration in the petition
or to make out the grounds urged in the petition, may be produced
as annexures to the petition. The documents filed as annexures
shall be arranged in chronological order and numbered as Annexure
1, 2, 3 and so on and shall indicate page numbers. They shall be
indexed separately and not collectively.
(ii) The petitioner may produce any document not part of the
records in the Court/Tribunal below by making a separate
application seeking leave of the Court to produce additional
document stating the reasons for not producing it in the
Court/Tribunal below and the necessity for its production in the
Court.
(iii) The English version of the relevant provisions of the
Constitution, statutes, ordinances, rules, regulations, bye laws,
orders, etc., referred to in the impugned judgment or order, shall be
filed as appendix to the petition.
(f) Every petition shall be supported by the affidavit of the petitioners
or one of the petitioners, as the case may be, or by any person
authorized by the petitioner in which the deponent shall state that
the facts stated in the petition are true and the statement of dates
and facts furnished along with the petition are true to his knowledge
and/or information and belief.
2. No petition shall be entertained by the Registry unless it contains a
statement as to whether the petitioner had filed any petition for
61 special leave to appeal against the impugned judgment or order
earlier and, if so, with what result, duly supported by an affidavit of
the petitioner or his
pairokar only.
3. The petition shall contain a statement as to whether the matter was
contested in the Court appealed from and if so, the full name and
address of all the contesting parties shall be given in the statement
of facts in the petition.
4. It shall contain a statement as to whether a letters patent appeal or
writ appeal lies against the impugned judgment or order and
whether the said remedy has been availed.
5. No annexures to the petition shall be accepted unless they are
certified copies of documents which have formed part of the record
of the case in the Court appealed from:
Provided that uncertified copies of documents may be
accepted as annexures, if such copies are affirmed to be true copies
upon affidavit.
6. Where any person is sought to be impleaded in the petition as the
legal representative of any party to the proceedings in the Court
below, the petition shall contain a prayer for bringing on record
such person as the legal representative and shall be supported by an
affidavit setting out the facts showing him to be the proper person
to be entered on the record as such legal representative.
7. Where at any time between the filing of the petition and the hearing
thereof, the record becomes defective by reason of the death or
change of status of a party to the appeal or for any other reason, an
application shall be made to the Court stating who is the proper
person to be substituted or entered on the record in place of or in
addition to the party on record.
8. The petition shall state the amount or value of the subject-matter
in the same terms as stated in clause 3 of the civil appeal
hereinbefore.
9. In cases relating to Motor Vehicles Act, 1988, the following
particulars shall be furnished:
62 (i) Particulars of the Award:
(a) Case number: .……………….
(b) Date of the Award: .…………
(c) Award passed under Section 163-A/166 of the Motor
Vehicles Act, 1988:
(d) Name of the Member: .……………..
(e) Designation and place of sitting of the Tribunal: .….
(ii) Particulars of the Accident:
(a) Time and date : .….……………
(b) Place : .……………….. ……
Near Village/Locality : .…………
Tehsil and District : .…………….
(iii) Particulars of the offending vehicle:
1. Registration No. ………………….
2. Kind of Vehicle .………………….
3. Owned by. ….…………..(Appellant/Respondent No.)
4. Driven by……...………..(Appellant/Respondent No.)
5. Insured with ….………. (Appellant/Respondent No.)
(iv) Name and description of the injured/deceased person:
1. Name ………………………………………
2. Age.………………………………………..
3. Father’s/husband’s name .…………………
4. Occupation ..…………………………..….
5. Address ……………………………………
(v) (1) In fatal accident cases:
(a) Annual income of the deceased: Rs………….….
(As adjudged by the Tribunal)
(b) Annual dependency of the claimant Rs……….…
(As assessed by the Tribunal)
(c) Multiplier applied by the Tribunal ……………….
(d) Number of dependants and their
relationship with deceased ……………………….
(e) Amount of compensation Rs………………...
awarded by Tribunal
(f) Payable by ………………………………….
(2) In non-fatal accident cases :
(a) Nature of injuries suffered …………………….
63 with percentage of disability
(As adjudged by Tribunal)
(b) Amount of expenses on treatment Rs………...
awarded by the Tribunal
(c) Amount of damages as loss of Rs……………
Income, awarded by Tribunal
(d) Amount of general damages Rs……………...
awarded by Tribunal
(e) Total compensation awarded Rs……………...
(f) Payable by………………...
(3) In cases of damage to property:
(a) Particulars of Property………………………..
(b) Nature of damage to the Property…………….
(As adjudged by Tribunal)
(c) Total compensation awarded …………………
(d) Payable by …………………………………..
(vi) Details of Interest awarded by the Tribunal:
(1) Date from which interest is awarded………………….
(2) Rate at which interest has been awarded………….…%
(vii) (1) Total amount of compensation awarded by High
Court.
(2) Date from which interest awarded…………………….
(3) Rate at which interest has been awarded....…………%
(4) Multiplier applied by the High Court……………….
(5) Gross total………………….
(6) Amount, if any, already paid to the claimant(s)
………..
(viii) Relief Claimed in appeal:
(1) Enhancement/Reduction of
amount of compensation by Rs.……………….
(2) Exoneration/liability of insurer ……………………….
(3) Award of interest at the rate of……………………%
(4) Any other relief
Original Suit
1. A suit shall be instituted by the presentation of a plaint to the
Registrar under Order XXVI of the Rules.
64 2. Two or more plaintiffs may join in one suit in whom any
right to relief in respect of or arising out of the same act or
transaction or series of acts or transactions is alleged to exist.
Similar shall be the case with defendants against whom any
right to relief is alleged to exist.
3. A plaint shall contain the following particulars --
(a) names of the plaintiff and of the defendant;
(b) facts constituting the cause of action and when it arose;
(c) facts showing that the Court has jurisdiction; and
(d) declaration or relief which the plaintiff claims.
4. The plaintiff shall endorse on the plaint, or annex thereto a
list of the documents, if any, which he has produced along
with it.
5. Every pleading shall contain
only a statement in a concise
form of the material facts on which the party pleading relies,
but not the evidence by which those facts are to be proved,
nor any argumentative matter, and shall be divided into
paragraphs numbered consecutively.
6. Every pleading shall be signed by an advocate-on-record on
behalf of the Attorney General for India or by an advocate-
on-record on behalf of the Advocate General for the State, as
the case may be.
Note
Under Order XXIX of the Rules, ‘pleading’ means plaint or written
statement.
Transfer Petition
1. (i) A petition under Article 139A(1) of the Constitution read with
Order XL of the Rules shall set out concisely, in separate
paragraphs --
(a) facts and particulars of the cases, pending before the
Supreme Court and one or more High Courts or, as the case
may be, before two or more High Courts;
65 (b) names and addresses of the parties;
(c) question(s) of law involved; and
(d) statement that the same or substantially the same questions of
law are involved in all the cases and that such questions are
substantial questions of general importance.
(ii) (a) In the case of a petition made by the Attorney General for
India, no affidavit shall be necessary in support of the
petition but it shall be accompanied by a certificate of the
advocate on-record to the effect that such questions are
substantial questions of general importance in terms of
Article l39A(1) of the Constitution.
(b) In the case of a petition made by a party to a case, it shall be
accompanied by an affidavit in support thereof and also by a
certificate, as stated in clause (1) above.
2. A petition under Article 139A(2) of the Constitution and/or Section
25 of the Code filed under Order XLI of the Rules shall state
succinctly and clearly all relevant facts and particulars of the case,
the names of the High Court or other Civil Court in which the case
is pending and the Court to which the transfer is sought and the
grounds on which the transfer is sought supported by an affidavit.
Review Petition
An application for review under Article 137 of the Constitution read
with Order XLVII of the Rules shall be filed on the grounds mentioned
in Order XLVII Rule 1 of the Code, namely, discovery of new and
important matter or evidence which, after exercise of due diligence
was not within the knowledge or could not be produced by the
petitioner at the time when the decree was passed or order made, or on
account of some mistake or error apparent on the face of the record, or
for any other sufficient reason.
It shall be accompanied by --
(i) a certified copy or authenticated copy of the order or judgment
sought to be reviewed; and
(ii) a certificate of the advocate on-record certifying that it is the first
application for review and is based on the grounds admissible under
66 the Rules.
Curative Petition
1. A curative petition shall be governed by the judgment of the Court
in the case of
Rupa Ashok Hurra v.
Ashok Hurra and Anr. [2002
(4) SCC 388] and as per Order XLVIII of the Rules.
2. It shall contain specifically that no new grounds have been taken
and the grounds mentioned in the petition had been taken in the
application for review, which was dismissed by circulation.
3. It shall be accompanied by --
(i) a certificate of the senior advocate that the petition meets
the requirements delineated in the case mentioned in clause
(1) above;
(ii) a certified or authenticated copy of the judgment or order
complained of; and
(iii) a certificate of the advocate on-record to the effect that it is
the first curative petition in the impugned matter.
I. Writ Petition
1. A petition under Article 32 of the Constitution read with Order
XXXVIII Rule 1 of the Rules for a direction or order or writ,
including writs in the nature of
mandamus, prohibition,
quo
warranto and
certiorari or any of them, shall be filed in Form
No. 32 setting out the name and description of the petitioner(s)
and respondents(s), the nature of fundamental right infringed,
the relief sought and the grounds on which it is sought.
2. The petition shall be --
(a) accompanied by original or certified copy or true copy of
the order or decision, if any, complained of;
(b) supported by an affidavit verifying the facts relied upon.
3. The petitioner shall state whether the petitioner has moved the
High Court for similar relief and, if so, with what result.
4. When a petitioner relies upon document(s) in his possession or
power, he shall file those documents along with the petition. Where
67 such document is handwritten or is not fairly legible, it shall be
accompanied by true, typed or printed copy thereof:
Provided that where such documents are not in his
possession, the petition shall annex a list of such documents to the
petition.
II. Public Interest Litigation
1. A writ petition in public interest invoking extraordinary original
jurisdiction under Article 32 of the Constitution read with Order
XXXVIII Rules 1 and 12(1)(d) and (2) of the Rules shall be filed in
Form No. 33 and shall disclose --
(a) the full name of the petitioner, his complete postal address,
eMail address, phone number, proof regarding personal
identification, occupation and annual income, PAN number
and National Unique Identity Card number, if any;
(b) the facts constituting the cause of ac

I, S t e v e
30
Creativity and Technology
One of the things I learned at Pixar is the tech-
nology industries and the content industries do
not understand each other. In Silicon Valley and
at most technology companies, I swear that most
people think the creative process is a bunch of
guys in their early 30s, sitting on a couch, drink-
ing beer and thinking of jokes. No, they really do.
That’s how television is made, they think; that’s
how movies are made. People in Hollywood and
in the content industries, they think technology
is something you just write a check for and buy.
They don’t understand the creativity element of
technology. These are like ships passing in the
night.
—CNN Tech, June 10, 2011 31 S t e v e J o b S I n H I S o w n w o r d S
Credo
It’s Not Done Until It Ships.
—Folklore.org, January 1983
The Journey Is the Reward.
—Folklore.org, January 1983
The organization is clean and simple to under-
stand, and very accountable. Everything just got
simpler. That’s been one of my mantras—focus
and simplicity.
—Bloomberg Businessweek, May 12, 1998 I, S t e v e
32
Customer Complaints
I have received hundreds of emails from iPhone
customers who are upset about Apple dropping
the price of iPhone by $200 two months after it
went on sale. After reading every one of these
emails, I have some observations and conclu-
sions.… There is always change and improvement,
and there is always someone who bought a prod-
uct before a particular cutoff date and misses the
new price or the new operating system or the new
whatever. This is life in the technology lane. If you
always wait for the next price cut or to buy the
new improved model, you’ll never buy any tech-
nology product because there is always something
better and less expensive on the horizon.… [E]ven
though we are making the right decision to lower
the price of iPhone, and even though the tech-
nology road is bumpy, we need to do a better job
of taking care of our early iPhone customers as we
aggressively go after new ones with a lower price.
Our early customers trusted us, and we must live
up to that trust with our actions in moments like
these.
—Apple Website, September 2007 33 S t e v e J o b S I n H I S o w n w o r d S
Customer Loyalty
I get asked a lot why Apple’s customers are so
loyal. It’s not because they belong to the Church
of Mac! That’s ridiculous.
It’s because when you buy our products, and
three months later you get stuck on something,
you quickly figure out [how to get past it]. And
you think, “Wow, someone over there at Apple
actually thought of this!”…. There’s almost no
product in the world that you have that experience
with, but you have it with a Mac. And you have it
with an iPod.
—Bloomberg Businessweek, October 12, 2004
David versus Goliath
It’s curious to me that the largest computer com-
pany in the world [IBM] couldn’t even match the
Apple II, which was designed in a garage six years
ago.
—InfoWorld, March 8, 1982 I, S t e v e
34
Deadlines
No way, there’s no way we’re slipping! You guys
have been working on this stuff for months now.
Another couple of weeks isn’t going to make that
much of a difference. You may as well get it over
with. Just make it as good as you can. You better
get back to work!
—Folklore.org, January 1984
Real artists ship.
—Folklore.org, January 1984 35 S t e v e J o b S I n H I S o w n w o r d S
Death
That’s why I think death is the most wonderful
invention of life. It purges the system of these
old models that are obsolete. I think that’s one of
Apple’s challenges, really. When two young people
walk in with the next thing, are we going to em-
brace it and say this is fantastic? Are you going to
be willing to drop our models, or are we going to
explain it away? I think we’ll do better, because
we’re completely aware of it and we make it a pri-
ority.
—Playboy, February 1985
Quoting Mark Twain, on the premature announce-
ment of his death by Bloomberg: The reports of my
death are greatly exaggerated.
—Apple event for the iPod, September 9, 2008 I, S t e v e
36
Decision Making
At Apple, there are ten really important decisions
to make every week. It’s a transactional company;
it’s got a lot of new products every month. And
if some of those decisions are wrong, maybe you
can fix them a few months later. At Pixar, because
I’m not directing the movies, there are just a few
really important strategic decisions to make every
month, maybe even every quarter, but they’re
really hard to change. Pixar’s much slower-paced,
but you can’t change your mind when you go
down these paths.
—To Infinity and Beyond! 2007
Demise
Apple has some tremendous assets, but I believe
without some attention, the company could,
could, could—I’m searching for the right word—
could, could die.
—Time, August 18, 1997 37 S t e v e J o b S I n H I S o w n w o r d S
Dent In the Universe
Being the richest man in the cemetery doesn’t
matter to me.… Going to bed at night saying we’ve
done something wonderful—that’s what matters
to me.
—CNNMoney/Fortune I, S t e v e
62
Jobs’s $1 Annual Salary
I get 50 cents a year for showing up…and the other
50 cents is based on my performance.
—AppleInsider.com, May 10, 2007
Letting Go of the Past
When I got back here in 1997 I was looking for
more room, and I found an archive of old Macs
and other stuff. I shipped all that off to Stanford.
If you look backward in this business, you’ll be
crushed. You have to look forward.
—Wired, December 22, 2008
Life’s Complications
It’s insane: We all have busy lives, we have jobs,
we have interests, and some of us have children.
Everyone’s lives are just getting busier, not less
busy, in this busy society. You just don’t have time
to learn this stuff, and everything’s getting more
complicated.… We both don’t have a lot of time to
learn how to use a washing machine or a phone.
—The Independent, October 29, 2005 63 S t e v e J o b S I n H I S o w n w o r d S
Losing Market Share
And how are monopolies lost? Think about it.
Some very good product people invent some
very good products, and the company achieves
a monopoly. But after that, the product people
aren’t the ones that drive the company forward
anymore. It’s the marketing guys or the ones
who expand the business into Latin America or
whatever.… So a different group of people start to
move up. And who usually ends up running the
show? The sales guy.
—Bloomberg Businessweek, October 12, 2004
Losing Money
I’m the only person I know that’s lost a quarter of
a billion dollars in one year…. It’s very character-
building.
—Apple Confidential 2.0, 2004 I, S t e v e
64
Lost Opportunities
So we went to Atari and said, “Hey, we’ve got this
amazing thing, even built with some of your parts,
and what do you think about funding us? Or we’ll
give it to you. We just want to do it. Pay our salary,
we’ll come work for you.” And they said, “No.” So
then we went to Hewlett-Packard, and they said,
“Hey, we don’t need you. You haven’t got through
college yet.’”
—Fast Company, August 11, 2009
Mac Cube
Ahead of its time, a commercial bust: The G4
Cube is simply the coolest computer ever. An
entirely new class of computer, it marries the
Pentium-crushing performance of the Power Mac
G4 with the miniaturization, silent operation and
elegant desktop design of the iMac. It is an amaz-
ing engineering and design feat, and we’re thrilled
to finally unveil it to our customers.
—Macworld Expo, 2000 65 S t e v e J o b S I n H I S o w n w o r d S
Mac’s Introduction
It is now 1984. It appears IBM wants it all. Apple
is perceived to be the only hope to offer IBM a run
for its money. Dealers initially welcoming IBM
with open arms now fear an IBM dominated and
controlled future. They are increasingly turning
back to Apple as the only force that can ensure
their future freedom. IBM wants it all, and is aim-
ing its guns on its last obstacle to industry control:
Apple. Will “Big Blue” dominate the entire com-
puter industry? The entire information age? Was
George Orwell right?
—Apple special event for the Macintosh, January 1984
Mac Legacy
You saw the 1984 commercial. Macintosh was basi-
cally this relatively small company in Cupertino,
California, taking on the goliath, IBM, and saying
“Wait a minute, your way is wrong. This is not the
way we want computers to go. This is not the leg-
acy we want to leave. This is not what we want our
kids to be learning. This is wrong and we are going
to show you the right way to do it and here it is. It’s
called Macintosh and it is so much better.”
—Smithsonian Institution Oral and Video Histories,
April 20, 1995 I, S t e v e
66
Making Bold Announcements
I understand the appeal of a slow burn, but per-
sonally I’m a big-bang guy.
—Harvard Business School, Working Knowledge for
Business Leaders, June 16, 2003
Marketing
My dream is that every person in the world will
have their own Apple computer. To do that, we’ve
got to be a great marketing company.
—Odyssey: Pepsi to Apple, 1987 67 S t e v e J o b S I n H I S o w n w o r d S
Microsoft’s Lack of Innovation
The only problem with Microsoft is they just have
no taste. I don’t mean that in a small way. I mean
that in a big way, in the sense that they don’t think
of original ideas and they don’t bring much cul-
ture into their products. I have no problem with
their success—they’ve earned their success for the
most part. I have a problem with the fact that they
just make really third-rate products
—Triumph of the Nerds, PBS, June 1996
The thing I don’t think is good is that I don’t
believe Microsoft has transformed itself into an
agent for improving things, an agent for coming
up with the next revolution. The Japanese, for
example, used to be accused of just copying—and
indeed, in the beginning, that’s just what they did.
But they got quite a bit more sophisticated and
started to innovate—look at automobiles, they
certainly innovated quite a bit there. I can’t say
the same thing about Microsoft.
—Rolling Stone, January 17, 2011 I, S t e v e
68
Microsoft’s Microview
I told [Bill Gates] I believed every word of what I
said but that I should never have said it in public.
I wish him the best, I really do. I just think he and
Microsoft are a bit narrow. He’d be a broader guy
if he had dropped acid once or gone off to an ash-
ram when he was younger.
—New York Times Magazine, January 12, 1997
Misplaced Values
You know, my main reaction to this money thing
is that it’s humorous, all the attention to it, be-
cause it’s hardly the most insightful or valuable
thing that’s happened to me in the past ten years.
But it makes me feel old, sometimes, when I speak
at a campus and I find that what students are most
in awe of is the fact that I’m a millionaire.
—Playboy, February 1985 69 S t e v e J o b S I n H I S o w n w o r d S
Mistakes
On dropping Flash on Apple products: Some
things are good in a product, some things are bad.
If the market tells us we’re making bad choices,
we’ll make changes.
—D8 conference, June 1, 2010
Money
Innovation has nothing to do with how many
R&D dollars you have. When Apple came up with
the Mac, IBM was spending at least 100 times
more on R&D. It’s not about money. It’s about the
people you have, how you’re led, and how much
you get it.… Rarely do I find an important product
or service in people’s lives where you don’t have at
least two competitors. Apple is positioned beauti-
fully to be that second competitor.
—CNNMoney/Fortune, November 9, 1998
I was worth about over a million dollars when
I was twenty-three and over ten million dollars
when I was twenty-four, and over a hundred mil-
lion dollars when I was twenty-five, and it wasn’t
important because I never did it for the money.
—Triumph of the Nerds, PBS, June 1996 I, S t e v e
70
Motivating Employees
What happens in most companies is that you
don’t keep great people under working envi-
ronments where individual accomplishment is
discouraged rather than encouraged. The great
people leave and you end up with mediocrity. I
know, because that’s how Apple was built.
—Playboy, February 1985
The people who are doing the work are the mov- I, S t e v e
96
Soul of the New Machine
You know, if the hardware is the brain and the
sinew of our products, the software in them is
their soul.
—Keynote address, Apple Worldwide Development
Conference, June 6–10, 2011
Stagnation, the Danger of
On Apple during his decade-long absence: The
trouble with Apple is it succeeded beyond its
wildest dreams. We succeeded so well, we got
everyone else to dream the same dream. The rest
of the world became just like it. The trouble is, the
dream didn’t evolve. Apple stopped creating.
—Apple Confidential 2.0, 2004
Stickiness
You don’t need to take notes. If it’s important,
you’ll remember it.
—Inside Steve’s Brain, 2009 97 S t e v e J o b S I n H I S o w n w o r d S
Stock Options
At Apple we gave all our employees stock options
very early on. We were among the first in Silicon
Valley to do that. And when I returned, I took
away most of the cash bonuses and replaced them
with options. No cars, no planes, no bonuses. Ba-
sically, everybody gets a salary and stock.… It’s a
very egalitarian way to run a company that Hewl-
ett-Packard pioneered and that Apple, I would like
to think, helped establish.
—CNNMoney/Fortune, November 9, 1998
Story, Importance of
We’ve pioneered the whole medium of computer
animation, but John [Lasseter] once said—and this
really stuck with me—“No amount of technology
will turn a bad story into a good story.”… That
dedication to quality is really ingrained in the cul-
ture of this studio.
—To Infinity and Beyond! 2007 I, S t e v e
98
Strategy
After departing Apple: You know, I’ve got a plan
that could rescue Apple. I can’t say any more
than that it’s the perfect product and the perfect
strategy for Apple. But nobody there will listen to
me.
—CNNMoney/Fortune, September 18, 1995
Success
Pixar’s seen by a lot of folks as an overnight suc-
cess, but if you really look closely, most overnight
successes took a long time.
—To Infinity and Beyond! 2007
Sucker-Punched, Being
I feel like somebody just punched me in the stom-
ach and knocked all my wind out. I’m only 30
years old and I want to have a chance to continue
creating things. I know I’ve got at least one more
great computer in me. And Apple is not going to
give me a chance to do that.
—Playboy, February 1985 99 S t e v e J o b S I n H I S o w n w o r d S
Survival
Victory in our industry is spelled survival. The
way we’re going to survive is to innovate our way
out of this.
—Time, February 5, 2003
Takeovers, Hostile
On a planned takeover engineered by Oracle’s
Larry Ellison, restoring Jobs as the head of Apple:
I decided I’m not a hostile-takeover kind of guy. If
they had [asked] me to come back, it might have
been different.
—Time, February 5, 2003
Taking Stock of Apple
On his single share of Apple stock: Yes, I sold the
shares. I pretty much had given up hope that the
Apple board was going to do anything. I didn’t
think the stock was going up. [After Jobs’s depar-
ture, Apple stock reached its lowest level ever.]
—Time, August 18, 1997 I, S t e v e
100
Teamwork
My model for business is the Beatles. They were
four guys who kept each other’s kind of negative
tendencies in check. They balanced each other and
the total was greater than the sum of the parts.
That’s how I see business: great things in business
are never done by one person, they’re done by a
team of people.
—60 Minutes, 2003
Technology in Perspective
[Technology] doesn’t change the world. It really
doesn’t. Technologies can make it easier, can let
us touch people we might not otherwise. But it’s
a disservice to constantly put things in a radical
new light, that it’s going to change everything.
Things don’t have to change the world to be im-
portant.
—The Independent, October 29, 2005 101
S t e v e J o b S I n H I S o w n w o r d S
“Think Different” Ad Campaign
Well, I gotta tell you—we don’t do it because it
goes down well or not. We have a problem, and
our problem was that people had forgotten what
Apple stands for. As a matter of fact, a lot of our
employees have forgotten what Apple stands for.
And so we needed a way to communicate what
the heck Apple’s all about. And we thought, how
do you tell somebody what you are, who you are,
what you care about? And the best way we could
think of was, you know, if you know who some-
body’s heroes are, that tells you a lot about them.
So we thought we’re going to tell people who our
heroes are, and that’s what the “Think Different”
campaign is about. It’s about telling people who
we admire, who we think are the heroes of this
century. And—some people will like us, and some
people won’t like us.
— Macworld Expo, March 13, 1999 I, S t e v e
102
Thinking Through the Problem
Once you get into the problem…you see that it’s
complicated, and you come up with all these con-
voluted solutions. That’s where most people stop,
and the solutions tend to work for a while. But
the really great person will keep going, find the
underlying problem, and come up with an elegant
solution that works on every level. That’s what we
wanted to do with the Mac.
—AppleDesign, 1997
We have a lot of customers, and we have a lot of
research into our installed base. We also watch
industry trends pretty carefully. But in the end,
for something this complicated, it’s really hard to
design products by focus groups. A lot of times,
people don’t know what they want until you show
it to them.
—Bloomberg Businessweek, May 25, 1998 103
S t e v e J o b S I n H I S o w n w o r d S
To Be or Not to Be
Your time is limited, so don’t waste it living some-
one else’s life. Don’t be trapped by dogma—which
is living with the results of other people’s think-
ing. Don’t let the noise of others’ opinions drown
our your own inner voice. And most important,
have the courage to follow your heart and intui-
tion. They somehow already know what you truly
want to become. Everything else is secondary.
—Commencement address, Stanford University,
June 12, 2005
Toy Story 2
On how Pixar’s commitment to Toy Story 2 ex-
acted a heavy toll on the company’s employees:
Everybody was so dedicated to it and loved Toy
Story and those characters so much, and loved the
new movie so much, that we killed ourselves to
make it. It took some people a year to recover. It
was tough—it was too tough, but we did it. Now
enough time has passed that we can look back on
that and we’re glad we did it. But it was tough.
—To Infinity and Beyond! 2007 I, S t e v e
104
Trash Talking
Adam Osborne is always dumping on Apple. He
was going on and on about Lisa, and when we I, S t e v e
122
2006
Disney buys Pixar for $7.4 billion; SJ gets a 7% stake ($3.5
billion) in Disney, becoming its largest individual
shareholder. He also becomes a member of its board of
directors. (January 24)
Apple debuts the MacBook (May 16) and a tower unit, the
Mac Pro. (August 7)
Pixar releases Cars, which grosses $244 million domesti-
cally. (June 9)
SJ’s gaunt-looking appearance at the annual Apple World-
wide Developers Conference (WWDC) gives rise to
speculation regarding his health and Apple’s succes-
sion plans. SJ announces OS X 10.5 Leopard.
2007
SJ announces at the Macworld Expo that he is reposition-
ing Apple Computer Inc., as, simply, Apple, Inc. (Janu-
ary 9)
Apple debuts the original iPhone.
Apple debuts its Apple TV at Macworld. (February)
Pixar releases Ratatouille, which grosses $206 million
domestically. It goes on to win an Academy Award for
Best Animated Feature Film. (June 29)
SJ is inducted into the California Museum’s Hall of Fame
by Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger. (December 5)
2008
Apple announces at Macworld the MacBook Air, a light-
weight laptop. (January 15)
Pixar releases WALL•E, which grosses $223 domestically.
It goes on to win an Academy Award for Best Ani-
mated Feature. (June 27) 123
S t e v e J o b S I n H I S o w n w o r d S
SJ’s appearance at the WWDC prompts renewed con-
cerns about his health.
Later that month, Bloomberg prematurely releases SJ’s obit-
uary. At an Apple event SJ quotes Mark Twain, “Reports
of my death are greatly exaggerated.” (September 9)
2009
SJ announces to his employees, in an interoffice memo,
that he is taking a six-month medical leave due to
health issues. In his absence, Timothy Cook once
again takes over as acting CEO. (January 14)
At Methodist University Hospital Transplant Institute in
Memphis, SJ undergoes a successful liver transplant.
(April)
Pixar releases Up, which grosses $293 million domesti-
cally. It goes on to win two Academy Awards (Best
Achievement in Music Written for Motion Pictures,
Original Score and Best Animated Feature Film). (May
29)
Fortune magazine names SJ the “CEO of the decade.”
2010
Pixar releases Toy Story 3, which grosses $415 million
domestically. It goes on to win two Academy Awards
(Best Achievement in Music Written for Motion Pic-
tures, Original Song and Best Animated Feature Film).
(June 18)
Apple debuts the iPad, ushering in the tablet era (April 3).
SJ creates an organ donors registry. (October)
Financial Times names SJ as its “Person of the Year.” I, S t e v e
124
2011
Apple opens the Mac App store. (January 6)
SJ takes an extended, open-ended leave of absence and,
again, Timothy Cook takes the helm. SJ remains in-
volved in strategic decisions. (January 17)
After years of contentious talks with the local town coun-
cil in Woodside, California, SJ finally gets approval to
demolish his mansion to construct an $8.45 million,
4,910-square foot home, about which architect Chris-
topher Travis remarked to Wired magazine, “The site
plan definitely shows unnatural restraint for a person
of wealth. This kind of thing only happens when the
client gives the architect specific instructions to be
sparse and utilitarian.” (February)
Apple sells iPad 2. (March 11)
Pixar releases Cars 2, which grosses $189 million domes-
tically (as of September 15, 2011). (June 24)
Mac OS 10.7, Lion, is released, bringing the look and feel
of the iPhone and iPad iOS to Apple’s computer line. It
is available only by download as an Apple application
for $29.99. (July 20)
Based on Apple’s market capitalization of $343 billion
($371.66 per share), it temporarily exceeds Exxon’s
market cap as the world’s most valuable company.
(August)
Apple submits a new proposal to the Cupertino City
Council to build a new campus designed by Foster +
Partners. Dubbed “the Spaceship” because of its round
design, it will be built on 98 acres of land and be com-
pleted in 2015. Steve Jobs, the only authorized biography of SJ, written
by Walter Isaacson, moves up its publication date from
March 6, 2012 to November 21, 2011. (August 15)
Steve Jobs resigns as CEO from Apple. Timothy Cook is
appointed CEO as SJ assumes the position of chair-
man. (August 24)
Apple CEO Timothy Cook holds his first media event to
announce the iPhone 4GS. (October 4)
Steve Jobs dies. (October 5) 127
end of an era
Steve Jobs’s resignation
letter as CEO of Apple
August 24, 2011
To the Apple Board of Directors and the Apple
Community:
I have always said if there ever came a day
when I could no longer meet my duties and expec-
tations as Apple’s CEO, I would be the first to let
you know. Unfortunately, that day has come.
I hereby resign as CEO of Apple. I would like
to serve, if the Board sees fit, as Chairman of the
Board, director and Apple employee.
As far as my successor goes, I strongly recom-
mend that we execute our succession plan and
name Tim Cook as CEO of Apple.
I believe Apple’s brightest and most innovative
days are ahead of it. And I look forward to watch-
ing and contributing to its success in a new role.
I have made some of the best friends of my life
at Apple, and I thank you for all the many years
of being able to work alongside you.
—Steve 129
CITaTIons
Anxiety before iPad Debut
Apple media event for iPhone 4.0 software, Cupertino,
CA, April 8, 2010.
Apple’s Core: Employees
Kara Swisher and Walt Mossberg, an interview with Bill
Gates and Steve Jobs, D5 Conference: All Things Digi-
tal, Carlsbad, CA, May 30, 2007.
Apple’s DNA
“‘Our DNA Hasn’t Changed,’” CNNMoney/Fortune, Feb-
ruary 21, 2005. http://money.cnn.com/magazines/for-
tune/fortune_archive/2005/02/21/8251766/index.htm
Apple’s Existence
Cathy Booth, David S. Jackson, and Valerie March-
ant, “Steve’s Job: Restart Apple,” Time, August 18,
1997. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/arti-
cle/0,9171,986849-3,00.html
Attention Getting
Characteristically used at the end of an Apple event.
Being the Best
Apple media event for iPhone 4.0 software, Cupertino,
CA, April 8, 2010. I, S t e v e
130
Beyond Recruiting
Rama Dev Jager and Rafael Ortiz, In the Company of Gi-
ants: Candid Conversations with the Visionaries of
Cyberspace (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1997).
Branding
“We don’t stand…”, Jeffrey L. Cruikshank, The Apple
Way: 12 Management Lessons from the World’s Most
Innovative Company (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2006).
“What are the great…”, Cathy Booth, David S. Jackson,
and Valerie Marchant, “Steve’s Job: Restart Apple,”
Time, August 18, 1997. http://www.time.com/time/
magazine/article/0,9171,986849-6,00.html
Broad-Based Education
Commencement address delivered at Stanford Univer-
sity, Stanford, CA, on June 12, 2005, whic
would ship Lisa, and then he started joking about
Mac. I was trying to keep my cool and be polite
but he kept asking, “What’s this Mac we’re hear-
ing about? Is it real?” He started getting under my
collar so much that I told him, “Adam, it’s so good
that even after it puts your company out of busi-
ness, you’ll still want to go out and buy it for your
kids.”
—Apple Confidential 2.0, 2004
Ubiquity of Mac
Apple’s in a pretty interesting position.
ing force behind the Macintosh. My job is to cre-
ate a space for them, to clear out the rest of the
organization and keep it at bay.… This is the neat-
est group of people I’ve ever worked with. They’re
all exceptionally bright, but more importantly
they share a quality about the way they look at
life, which is that the journey is the reward. They
really want to see this product out in the world.
It’s more important than their personal lives right
now.
—Macworld, no. 1, F, May 25, 1993
Design
In most people’s vocabularies, design means ve-
neer. It’s interior decorating. It’s the fabric of the
curtains and the sofa. But to me, nothing could
be further from the meaning of design. Design is
the fundamental soul of a man-made creation that
ends up expressing itself in successive outer layers
of the product or service.
—CNNMoney/Fortune, January 24, 2000

28
around 4.5 MPa. During production, the pressure will drop further due to
resistance to flow in the reservoir and well.
The mud enters though the drill pipe, passes through the cone and rises in
the uncompleted well. Mud serves several purposes:
• It brings rock shales (fragments of rock) up to the surface
• It cleans and cools the cone
• It lubricates the drill pipe string and cone
• Fibrous particles attach to the well surface to bind solids
• Mud weight should balance the downhole pressure to avoid leakage
of gas and oil. Often, the well will drill though smaller pockets of
hydrocarbons, which may cause a “blow-out" if the mud weight
cannot balance the pressure. The same might happen when drilling
into the main reservoir.
To prevent an uncontrolled blow-out, a subsurface safety valve is often
installed. This valve has enough closing force to seal off the well and cut the
drill string in an uncontrollable blow-out situation. However, unless casing is
already also in place, hydrocarbons may also leave though other cracks
inside the well and rise to the surface through porous or cracked rock. In
addition to fire and pollution hazards, dissolved gas in seawater rising under
a floating structure significantly reduces buoyancy.
The mud mix is a
special brew designed
to match the desired
flow thickness,
lubrication properties
and specific gravity.
Mud is a common name
used for all kinds of
fluids used in drilling
completion and
workover and can be
oil-based, water-based
or synthetic, and
consists of powdered
clays such as bentonite, oil, water and various additives and chemicals such
as caustic soda, barite (sulfurous mineral), lignite (brown coal), polymers and
emulsifiers. Photo: OSHA.gov
A special high-density mud called “kill fluid” is used to shut down a well for
workover. 29
Mud is recirculated. Coarse rock shales are separated in a shale shaker
before it is passed though finer filters and recalibrated with new additives
before returning to the mud holding tanks.
3.4 The well
Once the well has been drilled, it must be completed. Completing a well
consists of a number of steps, such as installing the well casing, completion,
installing the wellhead, and installing lifting equipment or treating the
formation, if required.
3.4.1 Well casing
Installing the well casing
is an important part of the
drilling and completion
process. Well casing
consists of a series of
metal tubes installed in
the freshly drilled hole.
Casing serves to
strengthen the sides of
the well hole, ensure that
no oil or natural gas
seeps out as it is brought
to the surface, and keep
other fluids or gases from
seeping into the
formation through the
well. A good deal of planning is necessary to ensure that the right casing for
each well is installed. Types of casing used depend on subsurface
characteristics of the well, including the diameter of the well (which is
dependent on the size of the drill bit used) and the pressures and
temperatures experienced. In most wells, the diameter of the well hole
decreases the deeper it is drilled, leading to a conical shape that must be
taken into account when installing casing. The casing is normally cemented
in place. Ill: wikipedia.org
There are five different types of well casing. They include:
• Conductor casing, which is usually no more than 20 to 50 feet (7-
17 m) long, is installed before main drilling to prevent the top of the 30
well from caving in and to help in the process of circulating the
drilling fluid up from the bottom of the well.
• Surface casing is the next type of casing to be installed. It can be
anywhere from 100 to 400 meters long, and is smaller in diameter to
fit inside the conductor casing. Its primary purpose is to protect fresh
water deposits near the surface of the well from contamination by
leaking hydrocarbons or salt water from deeper underground. It also
serves as a conduit for drilling mud returning to the surface and
helps protect the drill hole from damage during drilling.
• Intermediate casing is usually the longest section of casing found
in a well. Its primary purpose is to minimize the hazards associated
with subsurface formations that may affect the well. These include
abnormal underground pressure zones, underground shales and
formations that might otherwise contaminate the well, such as
underground salt water deposits. Liner strings are sometimes used
instead of intermediate casing. Liner strings are usually just attached
to the previous casing with “hangers” instead of being cemented into
place, and are thus less permanent.
• Production casing, alternatively called the “oil string” or '”long
string,” is installed last and is the deepest section of casing in a well.
This is the casing that provides a conduit from the surface of the well
to the petroleum-producing formation. The size of the production
casing depends on a number of considerations, including the lifting
equipment to be used, the number of completions required, and the
possibility of deepening the well at a later date. For example, if it is
expected that the well will be deepened later, then the production
casing must be wide enough to allow the passage of a drill bit later
on. It is also instrumental in preventing blow-outs, allowing the
formation to be “sealed” from the top should dangerous pressure
levels be reached.
Once the casing is installed, tubing is inserted inside the casing, from the
opening well at the top to the formation at the bottom. The hydrocarbons that
are extracted run up this tubing to the surface. The production casing is
typically 5 to 28 cm (2 -11 in) with most production wells being 6 inches or
more. Production depends on reservoir, bore, pressure, etc., and may be
less than 100 barrels per day to several thousand barrels per day. (5,000
bpd is about 555 liters/minute). A packer is used between casing and tubing
at the bottom of the well. 31
3.4.2 Completion
Well completion commonly refers to the process of finishing a well so that it
is ready to produce oil or natural gas. In essence, completion consists of
deciding on the characteristics of the intake portion of the well in the targeted
hydrocarbon formation. There are a number of types of completions,
including:
• Open hole completions are the most basic type and are only used
in very competent formations that are unlikely to cave in. An open
hole completion consists of simply running the casing directly down
into the formation, leaving the end of the piping open without any
other protective filter.
• Conventional perforated completions consist of production casing
run through the formation. The sides of this casing are perforated,
with tiny holes along the sides facing the formation, which allows
hydrocarbons to flow into the well hole while still providing a suitable
amount of support and protection for the well hole. In the past, “bullet
perforators” were used. These were essentially small guns lowered
into the well that sent off small bullets to penetrate the casing and
cement. Today, “jet perforating” is preferred. This consists of small,
electrically-fired charges that are lowered into the well. When ignited,
these charges poke tiny holes through to the formation, in the same
manner as bullet perforating.
• Sand exclusion completions are designed for production in an
area that contains a large amount of loose sand. These completions
are designed to allow for the flow of natural gas and oil into the well,
while preventing sand from entering. The most common methods of
keeping sand out of the well hole are screening or filtering systems.
Both of these types of sand barriers can be used in open hole and
perforated completions.
• Permanent completions are those in which the completion and
wellhead are assembled and installed only once. Installing the
casing, cementing, perforating and other completion work is done
with small-diameter tools to ensure the permanent nature of the
completion. Completing a well in this manner can lead to significant
cost savings compared to other types.
• Multiple zone completion is the practice of completing a well such
that hydrocarbons from two or more formations may be produced
simultaneously, without mixing with each other. For example, a well
may be drilled that passes through a number of formations on its
way deeper underground, or it may be more desirable in a horizontal 32
well to add multiple completions to drain the formation most
effectively. When it is necessary to separate different completions,
hard rubber “packing” instruments are used to maintain separation.
• Drainhole completions are a form of horizontal or slanted drilling.
This type of completion consists of drilling out horizontally into the
formation from a vertical well, essentially providing a drain for the
hydrocarbons to run down into the well. These completions are more
commonly associated with oil wells than with natural gas wells.
3.5 Wellhead
Wellheads can involve dry or subsea completion. Dry completion means that
the well is onshore or on the topside structure on an offshore installation.
Subsea wellheads are located underwater on a special sea bed template.
The wellhead has equipment
mounted at the opening of the well to
regulate and monitor the extraction of
hydrocarbons from the underground
formation. This also prevents oil or
natural gas leaking out of the well,
and prevents blow-outs due to high
pressure formations. Formations that
are under high pressure typically
require wellheads that can withstand
a great deal of upward pressure from
the escaping gases and liquids.
These must be able to withstand
pressures of up to 140 MPa (1,400
Bar). The wellhead consists of three
components: the casing head, the
tubing head, and the “Christmas tree.”
Photo: Vetco Gray
A typical Christmas tree, composed of
a master gate valve, a pressure
gauge, a wing valve, a swab valve
and a choke is shown above. The
Christmas tree may also have a number of check valves. The functions of
these devices are explained below. Ill: Vetco Gray
At the bottom we find the casing head and casing hangers.
The casing is screwed, bolted or welded to the hanger. Several valves and
plugs are normally fitted to give access to the casing. This permits the casing 34
Variable flow choke valve. The variable flow choke valve is typically a large
needle valve. Its calibrated opening is adjustable in 1/64 inch increments
(called beans). High-quality steel is used in order to withstand the high-
speed flow of abrasive materials that pass through the choke, usually over
many years, with little damage except to the dart or seat. If a variable choke
is not required, a less expensive positive choke is normally installed on
smaller wells. This has a built-in restriction that limits flow when the wing
valve is fully open.
Vertical tree. Christmas trees can also be horizontal where the master,
wing and choke are on a horizontal axis. This reduces the height and may
allow easier intervention. Horizontal trees are especially used on subsea
wells.
3.5.1 Subsea wells
Subsea wells are essentially the
same as dry completion wells.
Mechanically, however, they are
placed in a subsea structure
(template) that allows the wells to
be drilled and serviced remotely
from the surface, and protected
from damage, e.g., from trawlers.
The wellhead is placed in a slot
in the template where it mates to
the outgoing pipeline as well as
hydraulic and electric control
signals. Ill: Statoil
Control is from the
surface, where a hydraulic
power unit (HPU)
provides power to the
subsea installation via an
umbilical. The umbilical
is a composite cable
containing tension wires,
hydraulic pipes, electrical
power, control and
communication signals. A
control pod with inert gas and/or oil protection contains control electronics,
and operates most equipment via hydraulic switches. More complex subsea
solutions may contain subsea separation/stabilization and electrical 35
multiphase pumping. This may be necessary if reservoir pressure is low,
offset (distance to main facility) is long or there are flow assurance problems
so that the gas and liquids will not stably flow to the surface.
The product is piped back through pipelines and risers to the surface. The
main choke may be located topside.
3.5.2 Injection
Wells are also divided into production and injection wells. The former are for
production of oil and gas. Injection wells are drilled to inject gas or water into
the reservoir. The purpose of injection is to maintain overall and hydrostatic
reservoir pressure and force the oil toward the production wells. When
injected water reaches the production well, it is called “injected water
breakthrough.” Special logging instruments, often based on radioactive
isotopes added to injection water, are used to detect breakthrough.
Injection wells are fundamentally the same as production wellheads. The
difference is their direction of flow and, therefore, mounting of some
directional components, such as the choke.
3.6 Artificial lift
Production wells are free flowing or lifted. A free flowing oil well has enough
downhole pressure to reach suitable wellhead production pressure and
maintain an acceptable well flow. If the formation pressure is too low, and
water or gas injection cannot maintain pressure or are not suitable, the well
must be artificially lifted. For smaller wells, 0.7 MPa (100 PSI) wellhead
pressure with a standing column of liquid in the tubing is measured, by a rule
of-thumb method, to allow the well to flow. Larger wells will be equipped with
artificial lift to increase production, even at much higher pressures. Some
artificial lift methods are:
3.6.1 Rod pumps
Sucker rod
pumps, also
called donkey 55
4.4 Oil and gas storage, metering and export
The final stage before the oil and gas leaves the platform consists of
storage, pumps and pipeline terminal equipment.
4.4.1 Fiscal metering
Partners, authorities and customers all calculate invoices, taxes and
payments based on the actual product shipped out. Often, custody transfer
also takes place at this point, which means transfer of responsibility or title
from the producer to a customer, shuttle tanker operator or pipeline operator.
Although some small installations are still operated with a dipstick and
manual records, larger installations have analysis and metering equipment.
To make sure readings are accurate, a fixed or movable prover loop for
calibration is also installed. The illustration shows a full liquid hydrocarbon
(oil and condensate) metering system. The analyzer instruments on the left
provide product data such as density, viscosity and water content. Pressure
and temperature compensation is also included.
Figure 9. Metering system 56
For liquids, turbine meters with dual pulse outputs are most common.
Alternatives are positive displacement meters (pass a fixed volume per
rotation or stroke) and coriolis mass flow meters. These instruments cannot
cover the full range with sufficient accuracy. Therefore, the metering is split
into several runs, and the number of runs depends on the flow. Each run
employs one meter and several instruments to provide temperature and
pressure correction. Open/close valves allow runs to be selected and control
valves can balance the flow between runs. The instruments and actuators
are monitored and controlled by a flow computer. If the interface is not
digital, dual pulse trains are used to allow direction sensing and fault finding.
To obtain the required accuracy, the meters are calibrated. The most
common method is a prover loop. A prover ball moves though the loop, and
a calibrated volume is provided between the two detectors (Z). When a
meter is to be calibrated, the four-way valve opens to allow oil to flow behind
the ball. The number of pulses from it passes one detector Z to the other and
is counted. After one loop, the four-way valve turns to reverse flow direction
and the ball moves back, providing the same volume in reverse, again
counting the pulses. From the known reference volume, number of pulses,
pressure and temperature the flow computer can calculate the meter factor
and provide accurate flow measurements using formulas from industry
standard organizations such as API MPMS and ISO 5024. The accuracy is
typically ± 0.3% of standard volume.
Gas metering is similar, but instead,
analyzers will measure hydrocarbon
content and energy value (MJ/scm or
BTU, Kcal/scf) as well as pressure
and temperature. The meters are
normally orifice meters or ultrasonic
meters. Orifice plates with a diameter
less than the pipe are mounted in
cassettes. The pressure differential
over the orifice plate as well as
pressure and temperature, is used in
standard formulas (such as AGA 3
and ISO 5024/5167) to calculate normalized flow. Different ranges are
accommodated with different size restrictions.
Orifice plates are sensitive to a buildup of residue and affect the edges of the
hole. Larger new installations therefore prefer ultrasonic gas meters that
work by sending multiple ultrasonic beams across the path and measure the
Doppler effect. 57
Gas metering is less accurate than liquid, typically ±1.0% of mass. There is
usually no prover loop, the instruments and orifice plates are calibrated in
separate equipment instead.
LNG is often metered
with mass flow meters
that can operate at the
required low temperature.
A three run LNG
metering skid is shown
above.
At various points in the
movement of oil and gas,
similar measurements
are taken, usually in a
more simplified way.
Examples of different gas
types are flare gas, fuel
gas and injected gas, where required accuracy is 2-5% percent.
4.4.2 Storage
On most production
sites, oil and gas are
piped directly to a
refinery or tanker
terminal. Gas is
difficult to store
locally, but
occasionally
underground mines,
caverns or salt
deposits can be used
to store gas.
On platforms without
a pipeline, oil is stored in onboard storage tanks to be transported by shuttle
tanker. The oil is stored in storage cells around the shafts on concrete
platforms, and in tanks on floating units. On some floaters, a separate
storage tanker is used. Ballast handling is very important in both cases to
balance the buoyancy when oil volume varies. For onshore, fixed roof tanks
are used for crude, floating roof for condensate. Rock caves are also used
for storage 58
Special tank gauging systems such as level radars, pressure or float are
used to measure the level in storage tanks, cells and caves. The level
measurement is converted to volume via tank strapping tables (depending
on tank geometry) and compensated for temperature to provide standard
volume. Float gauges can also calculate density, and so mass can be
established.
A tank farm consists of 10-100 tanks of varying volume for a typical total
capacity in the area of 1-50 million barrels. Storage or shuttle tankers
normally store up to two weeks of production, one week for normal cycle and
one extra week for delays, e.g., bad weather. This can amount to several
million barrels.
Accurate records of volumes and history are kept to document what is
received and dispatched. For installations that serve multiple production
sites, different qualities and product blending must also be handled. Another
planning task is forecasting for future received and delivered products. This
is for stock control and warehousing requirements. A tank farm management
system keeps track of all stock movements and logs all transport operations
that take place.
4.4.3 Marine loading
Loading systems consist of one or
more loading arms/jetties, pumps,
valves and a metering system.
Tanker loading systems are complex,
both because of the volume involved,
and because several loading arms will
normally interact with the tanker's
ballast system to control the loading
operation. The tanks must be filled in
a certain sequence; otherwise the
tanker's structure might be damaged
due to uneven stresses. It is the
responsibility of the tanker's ballast
system to signal data to the loading
system and to operate the different
valves and monitor the tanks on
board the ship. Photo: Statoil 59
5 Midstream facilities
Raw natural gas from the well consists of methane as well as many other
smaller fractions of heavier hydrocarbons, and various other components.
The gas has to be separated into marketable fractions and treated to trade
specifications and to protect equipment from contaminants.
5.1 Gathering
Many upstream facilities include the gathering system in the processing
plant. However, for distributed gas production systems with many (often
small) producers, there is little processing at each location and gas
production from thousands of wells over an area instead feed into a
distributed gathering system. This system in general is composed of:
• Flowlines: A line connecting the wellpad with a field gathering station
(FGS), in general equipped with a fixed or mobile type pig launcher.
• FGS is a system allowing gathering of several flowlines and permits
transmission of the combined stream to the central processing facility
(CPF) and measures the oil/water/gas ratio. Each FGS is composed of:
o Pig receiver (fixed/mobile)
o Production header where all flowlines are connected
o Test header where a single flow line is routed for analysis
purposes (GOR Gas to oil ratio, water cut)
o Test system (mainly test separator or multiphase flow meter)
o Pig trap launcher
• Trunk line – pipeline connecting the FGS with the CPF. Equipped with a
pig receiver at the end.
5.2 Gas plants
5.2.1 Gas composition
When gas is exported, many gas trains include additional equipment for
further gas processing to remove unwanted components such as hydrogen
sulfide and carbon dioxide. These gases are called acids and
sweetening/acid removal is the process of removing them.
Natural gas sweetening methods include absorption processes, cryogenic
processes, adsorption processes (PSA, TSA and iron sponge) and
membranes. Often hybrid combinations are used, such as cryogenic and
membranes. 60
Gas treatment may also include calibration. If the delivery specification is for
a specific calorific value (BTU per scf or MJ per scm), gas with higher values
can be adjusted by adding an inert gas, such as nitrogen. This is often done
at a common point such as a pipeline gathering system or a pipeline onshore
terminal.
Raw natural gas from the well consists of methane as well, as many other
smaller fractions of heavier hydrocarbons and various other components.
Component Chemical
Formula
Boiling Point
at 101 kPa
Vapor pressure
at 20 °C approx.
Methane CH 4 -161,6 °C Tcri t−82.6 °C
@ 4,6 MPa
Ethane C 2H 6 -88.6 °C 4200 kPa
Propane C 3H 8 -42.1 °C 890 kPa
Butane n-C 4H 10 −0.5 °C 210 kPa
Higher order HC
Alkenes
Aromatics
C nH 2n
e.g. C 6H 6
Acid gases
Carbon dioxide
Hydrogen sulfide
Mercaptans ex.
Methanethiol
Ethanethiol
CO 2
H 2S
CH 3SH
C 2H 5SH
−78 °C
-60.2 °C
5.95 °C
35 °C
5500 kPa
Other Gases
Nitrogen
Helium
N 2
He
-195.79 °C
-268.93 °C
Water H2O 0 °C
Trace pollutants
Mercury
Chlorides
Data source: Wikipedia, Air Liquide Gas Encyclopedia
Natural gas is characterized in several ways dependent on the content of
these components:
o Wet gas is raw gas with a methane content of less than 85%.
o Dry gas is raw or treated natural gas that contains less than 15 liters
of condensate per 1,000 SM 3
. (0.1 gallon per 1000 scf).
o Sour gas is raw gas with a content of more than 5.7 mg hydrogen
sulfide (H 2S) per scm (0.25 grains per 100 scf); this is about 4 ppm. 61
o Acid gas has a high content of acidic gases such as carbon dioxide
(CO 2) or H 2St. Pipeline natural gas specification is typically less than
2% CO2. Acid gas fields with up to 90% CO 2 exist, but the normal
range for sour raw gas is 20-40%.
o Condensates are a mixture of hydrocarbons and other components
in the above table. These are normally gaseous from the well but
condense out as liquid during the production process (see previous
chapter). This is a refinery and petrochemical feedstock.
Raw gas is processed into various products or fractions:
o Natural gas in its marketable form has been processed for a
specific composition of hydrocarbons, sour and acid components,
etc., and energy content. Content is typically 90% methane, with
10% other light alkenes.
o Natural gas liquids (NGL) is a processed purified product
consisting of ethane, propane, butane or some higher alkenes
separately, or in a blend. It is primarily a raw material for
petrochemical industry and is often processed from the condensate.
o Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) refers to propane or butane or a
mixture of these that has been compressed to liquid at room
temperature (200 to 900 kPa depending on composition). LPG is
filled in bottles for consumer domestic use as fuel, and is also used
as aerosol propellant (in spray cans) and refrigerant (e.g., in air
conditioners). Energy to volume ratio is 74% of gasoline.
o Liquefied natural gas (LNG) is natural gas that is refrigerated and
liquefied at below -162 °C, for storage and transport. It is stored at
close to atmospheric pressure, typically less than 125 kPa. As a
liquid, LNG takes up 1/600 of the volume of the gas at room
temperature. Energy to volume ratio is 66% of gasoline. After
transport and storage it is reheated/vaporized and compressed for
pipeline transport.
o Compressed natural gas (CNG) is natural gas that is compressed
at 2-2,2 MPa to less than 1% of volume at atmospheric pressure.
Unlike higher alkenes, methane cannot be kept liquid by high
pressure at normal ambient temperatures because of a low critical
temperature. CNG is used as a less costly alternative to LNG for
lower capacity and medium distance transport. Methane for vehicle
fuel is also stored as CNG. Energy to volume ratio is typically 25% of 88
processes than end products, as each product may require multiple steps,
so an exhaustive list would not fit within this book. Instead, we will focus on
the main chains, properties and uses of the most important compounds and
a few key processes for this overview.
Many of these processes are based on polymerization, which means that it
is based on processes that first form monomers then let these bind together
to form polymers as long chains or a three dimensional network. Compounds
whose names start with “poly” are generally polymers, but many other trade
names, such as nylon which is a generic name for a family of polyamides,
are polymers.
Petrochemicals are often made in clusters of plants in the same area. These
plants are often operated by separate companies, and this concept is known
as integrated manufacturing. Groups of related materials are often used in
adjacent manufacturing plants, to use common infrastructure and minimize
transport.
WST - Exxon Singapore Petrochemical Complex
7.1 Aromatics
Aromatics, so called because of their distinctive perfumed smell, are a group
of hydrocarbons that include benzene, toluene and the xylenes. These are
basic chemicals used as starting materials for a wide range of consumer 89
products. Almost all aromatics come from crude oil, although small quantities
are made from coal.
7.1.1 Xylene and polyester chain
Figure 24. Aromatics – xylene and polyester chain, derivatives
One of the forms of xylene, paraxylene, is used to make polyesters which
have applications in clothing, packaging and plastic bottles.
The most widely-used polyester is polyethylene terephthalate (PET), used in
lightweight, recyclable soft drink bottles (30% of production), as fibers in
clothing (60% of production), as a filling for anoraks and duvets, in car tire
cords and conveyor belts. It can also be made into a film that is used in
video and audiotapes and X-ray films. Polyester makes up about 18% of
world polymer production and is the third most-produced polymer;
polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP) are first and second, respectively.
Metaxylene is an isomer of mixed xylene. It is used as an intermediate in the
manufacture of polyesters for coatings, inks, reinforced plastics and
packaging applications.
Unsaturated polyester is used over a broad spread of industries, mainly the
construction, boat building, automotive and electrical industries. In most
applications, they are reinforced with small glass fibers. Hence, these
plastics are commonly referred to as glass reinforced plastics (GRP).
Initially a liquid, the resin becomes solid by cross-linking chains. A curative
or hardener creates free radicals at unsaturated bonds, which propagate in a 90
chain reaction to adjacent molecules, linking them in the process. Styrene is
often used to lower viscosity and evaporates during hardening, where the
cross linking releases heat.
Orthoxylene is an isomer of mixed xylene. It is primarily used in plasticizers
(primarily in flexible polyvinyl chloride (PVC) material to make it more
flexible), medicines and dyes.
Alkyd resins are a group of sticky synthetic resins used in protective coatings
and paints.
7.1.2 Toluene, benzene, polyurethane and phenolic
chain
Figure 25, Aromatics – toluene and benzene, polyurethane and
phenolic chain
Tolune diisocyanate (TDI) is an isocyanate used in the production of
polyurethanes for flexible foam applications, ranging from furniture, bedding,
and carpet underlay to transportation and packaging. TDI is also used in the
manufacture of coatings, sealants, adhesives and elastomers.
Nylon is a generic designation for a family of synthetic polymers known
generically as aliphatic polyamides derived from benzene, first produced in
1935 by DuPont. Nylon can be used to form fibers, filaments, bristles, or
sheets to be manufactured into yarn, fabric, and cordage; and it can be 91
formed into molded products. Nylon is tough, elastic and strong, and it has
high resistance to wear, heat, and chemicals. It is generally used in the form
of fine filaments in such articles as hosiery and sports equipment, e.g.,
parachutes; but its applications also include engineering plastics for cars,
toys, healthcare products, carpets, roller-blade wheels and ship sails.
There are many varieties of nylon that have their own characteristic
properties. Nylon plastics are used for making such products as combs,
brushes and gears. Nylon yarns, on the other hand, are used for making
nylon fabrics. When talking about nylon textile, there are two types that are
mostly prevalent in the market: nylon 6-6 (also written as nylon 6,6) and
nylon 6.
Phenol is an aromatic alcohol, mainly used as an intermediate in organic
synthesis. Essentially, it serves as a raw material for the production of
bisphenol A, phenolic resins, alkylphenols and caprolactam. It is a
poisonous, acidic compound obtained from coal tar or benzene and used
mainly as a disinfectant or antiseptic, carbolic acid; any hydroxyl derivative of
benzene.
Phenolic resins are manufactured from phenol. They are used in wood
products and molding powders applications, and also have a wide range of
applications on the electrical, mechanical and decorative markets, in the
automotive industry, in building and construction, in thermal insulation
products and in foundry industry products.
Epoxy resin is a flexible resin made using phenols and used chiefly in
coatings, adhesives, electrical laminants and composites for its excellent
adhesion, strength and chemical resistance.
Polycarbonates are a particular group of thermoplastics. They are easily
worked, molded, and thermoformed; as such, these plastics are very widely
used in modern manufacturing. Polycarbonate is becoming more common in
housewares, as well as laboratories and in industry. It is often used to create
protective features, for example, in banks as well as vandal-proof windows
and lighting lenses for many buildings.
7.1.3 Benzene and styrenic chain, derivatives
Polystyrene is solid plastic made from polymerized styrene. It is the second
most common plastic and used in a wide variety of everyday applications,
from coffee cups to CD jewel boxes. It is a thermoplastic polymer in a solid
“glassy” state at room temperature, but flows if heated above about 100 °C. 92
It becomes solid again when cooled. This allows polystyrene to be extruded,
molded and vacuum-formed in molds with fine detail and high finish.
Figure 26. Aromatics – benzene and styrenic chain, derivatives
Styrene-acrylonitrile (SAN) is like polystyrene but offers higher thermal
resistance and is therefore used mainly in the automotive, electrical and
electronics industry, as well as in household applications and building
products.
Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) is a tough, heat-resistant and impact-
resistant thermoplastic, with the acrylonitrile providing heat resistance and
the styrene units offering rigidity. It is widely used for appliance and
telephone housings, luggage, sporting helmets, pipe fittings and automotive
parts.
Styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) is a rubber manufactured from styrene.
Because of its excellent abrasion resistance, it is widely used in automobile
and truck tires, as well as for carpet backing and paper coating. About 50%
of a car tire is made from SBR. Other applications are in belting, flooring,
wire and cable insulation and footwear.
7.2 Olefins
Olefins are petrochemical derivatives produced by cracking feed stocks from
raw materials such as natural gas and crude oil. Lower olefins have short 93
chains with only two, three or four carbon atoms, and the simplest one is
ethylene. The higher olefins have chains of up to twenty or more carbon
atoms. The main olefin products are ethylene, propylene, butadiene and C4
derivatives. They are used to produce plastics, as chemical intermediates,
and, in some cases, as industrial solvents.
7.2.1 Ethylene, derivatives
Figure 27. Olefins – ethylene, derivatives
Polyester and polyester resins is described under the Aromatics chain
(Chapter 7.1.1).
Ethanol, also known as ethyl alcohol (common alcohol), is manufactured by
synthesis from ethylene. It is an oxygenated hydrocarbon used in a wide
variety of high performance solvent applications (toiletries and cosmetics,
paints, lacquer thinners, printing inks, dyes, detergents, disinfectants and
pharmaceuticals), as a chemical raw material for the production of a range of
monomers and solvents, and is essential in pharmaceutical purification. In
transportation, ethanol is used as a vehicle fuel by itself, blended with
gasoline, or as a gasoline octane enhancer and oxygenate.
Ethanolamines are prepared by the reaction of ammonia and ethylene oxide.
They include monoethanolamine (MEA), diethanolamine (DEA) and
triethanolamine (TEA). The three are widely used in industry, principally as
absorbents for acidic components of natural gas and of petroleum-refinery 94
gas streams. It is also used to make detergents, metalworking fluids, and as
gas sweetening. TEA is used in detergents and cosmetics applications and
as a cement additive.
Polyethylene (PE), with a world production around 80 million tons, is the
most common plastic (and polymer). It is a polymer of ethylene, especially
any of various lightweight thermoplastics that are resistant to chemicals and
moisture, and has good insulating properties. Its primary use is in packaging
(plastic bags, plastic films, geomembranes, containers including bottles,
etc.).
Many kinds of polyethylene are known, with most having the chemical
formula (C 2H4) nH 2. It has many different trade varieties, and the most
common are:
High-density polyethylene (HDPE) is used predominantly in the
manufacture of blow-molded bottles for milk and household cleaners
and injection-molded pails, bottle caps, appliance housings and toys.
Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) is used in film applications due
to its toughness, flexibility and relative transparency. Typically,
LDPE is used to manufacture flexible films such as those used for
plastic retail bags. LDPE is also used to flexible lids and bottles, in
wire and cable applications for its stable electrical properties and
processing characteristics.
Linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) is used predominantly in
film applications due to its toughness, flexibility and relative
transparency. LLDPE is the preferred resin for injection molding
because of its superior toughness
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC). A polymer of vinyl chloride is used to make a
diverse range of cost-effective products with various levels of technical
performance suited to a wide range of applications. Many of these PVC
products are used every day and include everything from medical devices
such as medical tubing and blood bags, to footwear, electrical cables,
packaging, stationery and toys.
7.2.2 Propylene, derivatives
Polypropylenes (PP) are various thermoplastic plastics or fibers that are
polymers of propylene. Polypropylene can be made into fibers, where it is a
major constituent in fabrics for home furnishings such as upholstery and
carpets. Numerous industrial end uses include rope and cordage, disposable
non-woven fabrics for diapers and medical applications. As a plastic,
polypropylene is molded into bottles for foods and personal care products, 95
appliance housings, dishwasher-proof food containers, toys, automobile
battery casings and outdoor furniture.
Polyurethanes are used to make the foam in furniture, mattresses, car
seats, building insulation, and coatings for floors, furniture and refrigerators.
They are also used in artificial sports tracks, jogging shoes, and in roller
blade wheels. (See also, Chapter 7.1.2.)
Figure 28. Olefins – propylene, derivatives
Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) (see chapter 7.1.3).
Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) is a semi-crystalline polymer resin. Though it is
thermoplastic, it does not melt under normal conditions. It degrades before
melting. It is used to produce large variety of products including ultra-filtration
membranes, hollow fibers for reverse osmosis, fibers for textiles, and PAN
fibers that are the chemical precursor of carbon fiber.
Cumene is an aromatic derived from benzene and is used in turn to produce
polycarbonates, phenolic resins and essential healthcare products such as
aspirin and penicillin.
Methyl methacrylate (MMA). The principal application of methyl
methacrylate is the production of polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) acrylic
plastics. Also, MMA is used for the production of the co-polymer methyl 96
methacrylate butadiene-styrene (MBS), used as a modifier for PVC. MMA
polymers and copolymers are used for waterborne coatings, such latex
house paint.
7.2.3 Butadiene, butylenes, and pygas, derivatives
Pygas, or pyrolysis gasoline, is a naphtha-range product with a high
aromatic content, used either for gasoline blending or as a feedstock for a
BTX extraction unit. Pygas is produced in an ethylene plant that processes
butane, naphtha or gasoil.
Figure 29. Olefins – butadiene, butylene, and pygas, derivatives
Styrene-butadiene (rubber) (SBR) (see Chapter 7.1.3.)
Methyl methacrylate (MMA) (see chapter 7.2.2
Polybutadiene is a synthetic rubber that is a polymer formed from the
polymerization of the monomer 1,3-butadiene. It has a high resistance to 107
PSD and can be handled with less strict requirements.
These actions are handled by the emergency shut down system (ESD) and
process shut down system (PSD) according to functional safety
requirements and standards. Thus, a typical ESD function might require a
SIL 3 or even SIL 4 level, while PSD loops could be SIL 2 or SIL 3.
Smaller ESD systems, e.g., on wellhead platforms, can be hydraulic or
hardwired (non-programmable).
8.1.3 Fire and gas system
The fire and gas system is not generally
related to any particular process.
Instead, it divides into fire areas by
geographical location. Each fire area
should be designed to be self-contained,
in that it should detect fire and gas by
several types of sensors, and control fire
protection and firefighting devices to
contain and fight fire within the fire area.
In the event of fire, the area will be
partially shut off through closure of
ventilation fire dampers. A fire area
protection data sheet typically shows what detection exists for each fire area,
and which fire protection action should be taken in case of an incident.
The type and number of the detection, protection and fighting devices
depends on the type of equipment and size of the fire area and will vary for
different process areas, e.g., electrical rooms and accommodation rooms.
Fire detection:
• Gas detection: Combustible and toxic gas, electro-catalytic or
optical (IR) detector
• Flame detection: Ultraviolet (UV) or infra red (IR) optical detectors
• Fire detection: Heat and ionic smoke detectors
• Manual pushbuttons
Firefighting, protection:
• Gas-based firefighting, such as CO 2
• Foam-based firefighting
• Water-based firefighting: sprinklers, mist (water spray) and deluge
• Protection: Interface to emergency shutdown and HVAC fire dampers. 108
• Warning and escape: PA systems, beacons/lights, fire door and
damper release
A separate package related to fire and gas is the diesel- or electrically-driven
fire water pumps for the sprinkler and deluge ring systems.
For fire detection, coincidence and logic are often used to identify false
alarms. In such schemes, several detectors in the same area are required to
detect a fire condition or gas leakage for automatic reaction. This will include
different detection principles, e.g., a fire, but not welding or lightning strike.
Action is controlled by a fire and
gas system (F&G). Like the ESD
system, F&G action is specified
in a cause and action chart
called the Fire Area Protection
Datasheet. This chart shows all
detectors and fire protection
systems in a fire area and how
the system will operate.
The F&G system often provides
supervisory functions, either in
the F&G or the information
management system (IMS) to
handle such tasks as
maintenance, calibration or
replacement and hot work
permits, e.g., welding. Such
actions may require that one or
more fire and gas detectors or
systems are overridden or
bypassed. Specific work
procedures should be enforced,
such as a placing fire guards on duty, to make sure all devices are re-
enabled when the work permit expires or work is complete.
8.1.4 Control and safety configuration
Piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&ID) show the process. Additional
information is needed for the specification of the process control and safety
systems design and their control logic. These include: Loop diagram,
Instrument datasheet, Cable schedule and Termination list. 109P&ID 110
The illustration shows one typical format. This is the common format for the
NORSOK SCD standard. (Example for the Njord Separator 1 and 2 systems
control diagram). Essentially, the P&ID mechanical information has been
removed, and control loops and safety interlocks drawn in with references to
typical loops.
8.1.5 Telemetry/SCADA
Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) is normally associated
with telemetry and wide area communications, for data gathering and control
over large production sites, pipelines, or corporate data from multiple
facilities. With telemetry, the bandwidth is often quite low and based on
telephone or local radio systems. SCADA systems are often optimized for
efficient use of the available bandwidth. Wide area communication operates
with wideband services, such as optical fibers and broadband internet.
Figure 32. SCADA system topology (typical)
Remote terminal units (RTU) or local controls systems on wells, wellhead
platforms, compressor and pump stations, are connected to the SCADA 111
system by means of the available communication media. SCADA systems
have many of the same functions as the control system, and the difference
between them is mainly their data architecture and use of communications.
8.2 Digital oilfield
In the oil and gas industry digital oilfield (DOF) is a generic term for new
solutions and technologies for operation, work processes and methods that
are being made possible by adopting innovations in information technology.
Other names such as Integrated Operations (IO), E-Field, Smart Fields, i-
Field and Integrated Asset Management are used for the same concept.
Intelligent Energy is a general umbrella term adopted by Society of
Petroleum Engineers (SPE).
Central to this concept is collaboration between people; where data,
information, knowledge shared between a number of parties in digital form.
This often supported by technologies such as video conferencing and
augmented reality for personnel in remote locations or in the field. In this
environment we add solutions for optimal performance, security,
maintenance.
Figure 33. Digital Oilfield 112
Optimal production targets and maximum utilization of production resources
are achieved through the use of several sources of information, such as
reservoir mass balance calculations and depletion strategies, well test
results and use of simulation models. This is made possible by linking skills,
data and tools together in real time – independent of location.
Some of the enabler technology areas are:
1. A system and communication IT infrastructure
2. Applications for remote operations and remote operations support
3. Reservoir management and drilling operations
4. Production optimization
5. Information management systems
6. Operation support and maintenance
8.2.1 Reservoir management and drilling operations
Solution for data acquisition, modeling
and visualization between facility
operators and central company experts
to provide:
• Drilling simulation and
visualization, automatic
diagnostics and decision
support, real-time measurements
while drilling in order to locate the best targets
• Reservoir models based on real-time reservoir data, analysis of 4D
seismic, in-situ measurements of changes. On-line integration with
well-serviced company data
• Optimization models for increased production, based on in-reservoir
properties during production, with decision support incorporated to
improve productivity
8.2.2 Production optimization
Optimizing the production or improving productivity is a complex problem. In
addition to the production optimization of the downhole, subsea and topside
process, one has to consider operational costs, hardware damage, reservoir
performance, environmental requirements and operational difficulties within
each well and/or topside. To further complicate optimization, the individual
challenges will change over time, e.g., reservoir behavior changes as an
effect of depletion, shutdown of wells due to slugging, failed sensors and the
change of efficiencies within the topside process system. Some of the
applications included in production optimization are: 113
• Flowline control to stabilize multiphase flow in gathering systems,
risers and flow lines.
• Well control that will stabilize and optimize gas lift and naturally
flowing wells. This application should prevent flow and pressure
surges while maintaining minimal backpressure and maintain
maximum production as well as continuing production at the
optimum lift gas rate.
• Gas-lift optimization is provided to ensure the best possible
distribution of lift-gas between gas lifted wells.
• Slug management helps mitigate variations in inflow impact. The
separation and hydrocarbon processing during startup, upset and
normal operation.
• Well monitoring systems (WMS) are used to estimate the flow rates
of oil, gas and water from all the individual wells in an oil field. The
real-time evaluation is based on data from available sensors in the
wells and flow lines.
• Hydrate prediction tools help to avoid hydrate formation, which may
occur if a subsea gathering system is allowed to cool down too much
before the necessary hydrate preventive actions are performed.
• Optimal operation is defined by a set of constraints in the wells and
production facilities. A constraint monitoring tool monitors the
closeness to all constraints. This provides decision support for
corrective actions needed to move current operation closer to its true
potential.
• Advanced control and optimization solutions to improve the
performance of product quality control, while adhering to operating
constraints. This is typically done with two technologies: model
predictive control to drive the process closer to operating targets,
and inferential measurement to increase the frequency of product
quality feedback information.
• Tuning tools are designed to optimize and properly maintain the
optimal setting of control loops in the process automation system.
8.2.3 Asset optimization and maintenance support
An asset optimization (AO) system reduces costly production disruptions by
enabling predictive maintenance. It records the maintenance history of an
asset and identifies potential problems to avert unscheduled shutdowns,
maximize up-time and operate closer to plant production prognoses. This
functionality supports maintenance workflow as the AO system
communicates with a maintenance system, often denoted as a computerized
maintenance management system (CMMS). 114
Figure 34. Computerized maintenance management system
Condition monitoring includes both structural monitoring and condition
monitoring for process equipment such as valves and rotating machinery.
For structural monitoring, the devices are corrosion meters (essentially
plates that corrode, so that corrosion may be metered), tension force meters
and free swinging strings. These statistics are logged to a central structure
condition monitoring system, to show what forces are acting against the
installation, and the effect those forces are having.
Condition monitoring of machinery is generally used for large rotating
apparatus, such as turbines, compressors, generators and large pumps.
Input devices are vibration meters, temperature (bearing, exhaust gases,
etc.), as well as the number of start/stops, running time, lubrication intervals
and over-current trip-outs. For other process equipment, such as valves, the
system can register closing times, flow and torque. A valve that exhibits a
negative trend in closing time or torque ("stiction") can be diagnosed. The
maintenance trigger is the mechanism whereby field device or equipment
monitor resident information, in the form of digital status signals or other
Asset Monitor
Maintenance Management
Create work order
Work order history
Maintenance status
Preventive maintenance,…
Operator
Heat Exchanger
Actuator/
Valve
Diagnosis
and
Status Data
Messenger CMMS*CMMS*
Service staff
extern
Maximize the utilization of
plant assets over their lifecycle
Asset
Condition
Document
ERP-System 115
numerical or computed variables are interpreted to trigger a maintenance
request. A work order procedure is then automatically initiated in the CMMS.
Maintenance support functionality will plan maintenance, based on input
from condition monitoring systems, and a periodic maintenance plan. This
will allow the system to schedule personnel for such tasks as lubrication or
cleaning, and plan larger tasks such as turbine and compressor periodic
maintenance.
8.2.4 Information management systems (IMS)
A specific information management system (IMS) can be used to provide
information about the operation and production of the facility. This can be a
separate system, or an integral part of the control system or SCADA system. 132
Synthesis gas can also be created from natural gas by lean combustion or
steam reforming:
CH 4 + 1/2O 2 → CO + 2H 2 Lean combustion
CH 4 + H 2O → CO + 3H 2 Steam reforming
This can be fed to the water shift reaction and to the F-T process. This
process, together with the following application, are often called gas to
liquids (GTL) processes.
An alternative use of the synthesis gases (CO and H 2) is production of
methanol and synthetic gasoline:
2 H 2 + CO → CH 3OH Methanol synthesis
Then, the methanol is converted to synthetic gasoline in the Mobil process.
2 CH 3OH → CH 3OCH 3 + H 2O Dehydration to dimethyl ether
The second stage further dehydrates the ether with ceolite catalyst to yield a
synthetic gasoline with 80% carbon number 5 and above.
9.1.6 Methane hydrates
Methane hydrates are the most recent form of
unconventional natural gas to be discovered
and researched. These formations are made
up of a lattice of frozen water, which forms a
sort of cage around molecules of methane.
Hydrates were first discovered in permafrost
regions of the Arctic and have been found in
most of the deepwater continental shelves
tested. The methane originates from organic
decay.
At the sea bottom, under high pressure and low temperatures, the hydrate is
heavier than water and cannot escape. Research has revealed that this form
of methane may be much more plentiful than first expected. Estimates range
anywhere from 180 to over 5800 trillion scm.
The US Geological Survey estimates that methane hydrates may contain
more organic carbon than all the world's coal, oil, and conventional natural 133
gas – combined. However, research into methane hydrates is still in its
infancy.
9.1.7 Biofuels
Biofuels are produced from specially-grown products such as oilseeds or
sugars, and organic waste, e.g., from the forest industry. These fuels are
called carbon neutral, because the carbon dioxide (CO 2) released during
burning is offset by the CO2 used by the plant when growing.
Ethanol alcohol (C 2H 5OH) is distilled from fermented sugars and/or starch
(e.g., wood, sugar cane or beets, corn (maize) or grain) to produce ethanol
that can be burned alone with retuning of the engine, or mixed with ordinary
gasoline.
Biodiesel is made from oils from crops such as rapeseed, soy, sesame, palm
or sunflower. The vegetable oil (lipid) is significantly different from mineral
(crude) oil, and is composed of triglycerides. In these molecules, three fatty
acids are bound to a glycerol molecule shown in the following picture (The
wiggly line represents the carbon chain with a carbon atom at each knee
with single or double bonds and two or one hydrogen atoms respectively):
Figure 38, Vegetable Oil structure
The glycerol backbone on the left is bound (ester OH binding) to three fatty
acids, shown here with palmitic acid, oleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid and
a total carbon number of 55.
This molecule is broken down to individual alkyl esters through a chemical
process called transesterification, whereby the glycerin is separated from the
fatty acids. Methanol (CH 3OH) is added to the lipids and heated. Any strong
base capable of deprotonating the alcohol, such as NaOH or KOH is used as
catalyst. 134
The process leaves behind methyl esters (with a CH 3 group on the ester
binding) and glycerin (a valuable byproduct used in soaps, explosives and
other products).
Figure 39. Transesterification
Biodiesel contains no petroleum, but it can be blended at any level with
petroleum diesel to create a biodiesel blend. It can be used in compression-
ignition (diesel) engines with little or no modification. Biodiesel is simple to
use, biodegradable, non-toxic, and essentially free of sulfur and aromatics.
Although biofuel is carbon-neutral, concern has been raised about diverting
agricultural areas away from food production. Recently, research has shown
potential for growing certain strains in arid regions that could not otherwise
be used for producing human food.
An alternative to the above process that is still at the research stage is
genetically modified E. coli bacteria. E. coli can produce enzymes to break
down cellulose to sugar, which can then be used to produce biodiesel. This
method allows use of general biological waste and limit competition with
human food resources. 135
9.1.8 Hydrogen
Although not a hydrocarbon resource, hydrogen can be used in place of or
as a complement to traditional hydrocarbon-based fuels. As an "energy
carrier,” hydrogen is clean burning, which means that when hydrogen reacts
with oxygen, either in a conventional engine or a fuel cell, water vapor is the
only emission. (Combustion with air at high temperatures will also form
nitrous oxides).
Hydrogen can be produced either from hydrocarbons (natural gas, ethanol,
etc.) or by electrolysis. Production from natural gas is often done via syngas
(see chapter 9.1.5) with up to 75-80% efficiency. Its advantage over
methane gas is that carbon dioxide can be removed and handled at a central
location rather than by each consumer, providing a cleaner energy carrier.
Hydrogen is also produced from water by electrolysis with an efficiency of
about 25% at normal conditions, to about 50% in high temperature, high
pressure processes, or in various recycling processes in the chemical
industry. (e.g., hydrochloric acid recycled in the polyurethane process). The
energy supply can then come from a renewable source such as
hydroelectric, solar, wind, wave, or tidal, where hydrogen acts as an energy
carrier replacing batteries, to form a fully clean, renewable energy source
supply chain.
In both cases, the main problem is overall economy, distribution and storage.
Hydrogen cannot easily be compressed to small volumes, and requires quite
bulky gas tanks for storage. Also, hydrogen produced from electricity
currently has an end-to-end efficiency that does not compare well with
gasoline or electrical battery vehicles.
9.2 Emissions and environmental effects
The production, distribution and consumption of hydrocarbons as fuel or
feedstock are globally the largest source of emissions into the environment.
The total annual world energy supply of 11,000 million TOE is based 81% on
fossil fuels, and releases some 26,000 million tons of carbon dioxide plus
other gases, e.g., methane into the atmosphere.
The most serious effect of these emissions is global climate change. The
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (often called the UN Climate
Panel) predicts that these emissions will cause the global temperature to rise
from between 1.4 to 6.4 ºC by the end of the 21 st century, depending on
models and global scenarios. 136
9.2.1 Indigenous emissions
Emissions from the industry can be divided into several types.
Discharge: Mud, shale, silt, produced water with traces of
hydrocarbons. Ballast water, polluted wastewater with
detergent, sewage, etc.
Accidental spills: Blowout, shipwreck cargo and bunker oil, pipeline
leakage, other chemicals, traces of low level
radioactive isotopes.
Emissions: CO2, methane, nitrous oxides (NO x) and sulfur from
power plants and flaring
Exposure: Toxic and/or carcinogenic chemicals
Locally, these emissions are tightly controlled in most countries by national
and international regulations, and during normal operations, emission targets
can be reached with the systems and equipment described earlier in this
document. However, there is continuing concern and research into the
environmental impact of trace levels of hydrocarbons and other chemicals on
the reproductive cycle and health of wildlife in the vicinity of oil and gas
installations.
The major short-term environmental impact is from spills associated with
accidents. These spills can have dramatic short-term effects on the local
environment, with damage to marine and wildlife. However, the effects
seldom last for more than a few years outside Arctic regions.
9.2.2 Greenhouse emissions
The most effective greenhouse gas is water vapor. Water naturally
evaporates from the sea and spreads out, and can amplify or suppress the
other effects because of its reflective and absorbing capability.
The two most potent emitted greenhouse gases emitted are CO 2 and
methane. Because of its heat-trapping properties and lifespan in the
atmosphere, methane's effect on global warming is 22-25 times higher than
CO 2 per kilo released to atmosphere. By order of importance to greenhouse
effects, CO2 emissions contribute 72-77%, methane 14-18%, nitrous oxides
8-9% and other gases less than 1%. (sources: Wikipedia, UNEP)
The main source of carbon dioxide emissions is burning of hydrocarbons.
Out of 29 billion tons (many publications use teragram (Tg) = million tons) of
CO 2 emitted in 2008, 18 billion tons or about 60% of the total comes from oil 137
and gas, the remainder is coal, peat and renewable bioenergy, such as
firewood. 11% or 3.2 billion tons comes from the oil and gas industry itself in
the form of losses, local heating, power generation, etc.
The annual emissions are about 1% of total atmospheric CO 2, which is in
balance with about 50 times more carbon dioxide dissolved in seawater. This
balance is dependent on sea temperature: Ocean CO 2 storage is reduced as
temperature increases, but increases with the partial pressure of CO2 in the
atmosphere. Short term, the net effect is that about half the CO 2 emitted to
air contributes to an increase of atmospheric CO 2 by about 1.5 ppm annually.
For methane, the largest source of human activity-related methane
emissions to atmosphere is from rice paddies and enteric fermentation in
ruminant animals (dung and compost) from 1.4 billion cows and buffalos.
These emissions are estimated at 78.5 Tg/year (source: FAO) out of a total
of 200 Tg, which is equivalent to about 5,000 Tg of CO 2. Methane from the
oil and gas industry accounts for around 30% of emissions, mainly from
losses in transmission and distribution pipelines and systems for natural gas.
Figure 40. Greenhouse emissions Source: Wikipedia Commons 138
There are many mechanisms affecting the overall balance of greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere. CO2 has been measured both directly and in ice
cores, and has increased from a pre-industrial value of around 250 ppm to
385 ppm today. Methane has increased from 1732 to 1774 ppb (parts per
billion).
There is no full model that describes the net effect of these changes. It is
well accepted that without CO2, methane and water vapor, the global
average temperature would be about 30 ºC colder. The current data
correlates well with a current global average temperature increase from a
pre-industrial global average of 13.7 ºC to 14.4 ºC today. The atmosphere
and seas have large heat trapping capacity, which makes their temperatures
rise. These temperature rises lag behind greenhouse gas temperature
increases. It is therefore predicted that the temperature will continue to rise
by about 1ºC even if there were no further increase in levels of CO 2 and
methane.
The heat capacity of the atmosphere and seas also means that when the
temperature increases, there will be more energy stored in the atmosphere,
which is expected to drive more violent weather systems.
Figure 41. Carbon cycle
Volcanoes release
Erosion & Sediments
Organic Sediments
Oil, Gas Coal -------------------------
Carbonates
Absorbtion 139
The main contribution to sea level change in the short-to-medium term is
thermal expansion of the oceans, currently predicted to have reached about
0.15 m over pre-industrial standards, and currently rising some 3 mm/year.
Although the melting of inland ice in Greenland and Antarctica is reported,
this will mainly have local effects, as this ice will possibly take 15-20,000
years to have any significant contribution to sea levels. However, polar
glaciation and sea ice is an important indicator of global warming, and in
particular, Arctic summer temperatures have risen and sea ice has been
significantly reduced in area and thickness.
9.2.3 Carbon capture and sequestration
Due to these effects and the long-term concerns, it will be a high priority to
reduce the amount of carbon dioxide and methane released into the
atmosphere, and to develop more sustainable energy sources. The main
problem is that as much as one third of all emissions come from planes, cars
and ships, which account for about 45% of emissions from hydrocarbon fuels
that are not replaceable by other known energy sources at this time.
There are three main problem areas:
• There are losses in production: Only about 70% of hydrocarbons
extracted from the ground reach the private or industrial consumer.
The rest is lost from production systems, transportation and through
the refining and distribution of oil and gas.
• There are losses in consumption: Much of the oil and gas is
converted to work with an efficiency of 30% in cars, for example, to
60% in the best power plants.
• Better methods for capturing and storing emissions must also be
found.
Efficiency will be improved by maintaining and operating facilities to reduce
losses, and by converting to more efficient systems. For example, it can be
argued that conversion to electrically-driven equipment in place of gas
turbine-driven equipment could reduce CO 2 emissions by more than 50%,
even if power is generated by a gas turbine and steam combined cycle unit.
This also moves the emissions to a centralized unit rather than distributing to
a larger number of smaller gas turbines.
To reduce overall emissions, carbon will have to be separated from other
emitted gases (such as water vapor) and stored. Current plans call for re-
injection into empty reservoirs, or reservoirs that need pressure assistance
for oil extraction. 140
Capturing CO2 can be done at large point sites, such as large fossil fuel or
biomass energy facilities, industries with major CO2 emissions, natural gas
processing, synthetic fuel plants and fossil fuel-based hydrogen production
plants:
Overall there are three types of processes:
• Pre-combustion systems, where the fuel is gasified and processed
before combustion, and carbon dioxide can be removed from a
relatively pure exhaust stream.
• Post-combustion systems, where carbon dioxide is extracted from
the flue gas, e.g., using an amine process.
• Oxyfuel consumption, where fuel is burned as relatively pure
oxygen, so the hydrocarbon is burned in oxygen instead of air. This
produces a flue gas consisting of only carbon dioxide and water
vapor, which is cooled and condensed.
For storage:
• A system to store, transport and inject gas into existing reservoirs.
This is done by a pipeline, which is generally the cheapest form of
transport, or by ship if pipelines are not available.
• Alternatives to storage include carbonatization, deep sea deposit,
and planting of photosynthetic plants in otherwise infertile areas.
Currently these processes could remove around 90% of CO 2 at a cost of
$35-90 per ton, including injection and storage in a reservoir. This is about 2-
3 times the long-term expected emission quota cost
Figure 35. Information management system topology
wear and is used especially in the manufacture of tires. It has also been
used to coat or encapsulate electronic assemblies offering extremely high
electrical resistivity.
Polyisobutylene is a synthetic rubber, or elastomer. It is special because it
is the only rubber that is gas impermeable; it is the only rubber which can
hold air for long periods of time. Polyisobutylene, sometimes called buty
gasoline. 62
5.3 Gas processing
Raw natural gas must be processed to meet the trading specifications of
pipeline and gas distribution companies. As part of the purification other
components such as NGL is produced, and pollutants extracted.
The diagram shows an overview of a typical gas plant. Marketable products
are listed in blue and the production process is shown in grey as it is not
considered part of the gas plant.
Figure 10. Typical gas plant 63
5.3.1 Acid gas removal
Acid gases such as carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide form acids when
reacting with water, and must be removed to prevent corrosive damage to
equipment and pipeline
or beam
pumps, are the
most common
artificial lift
system used in
land-based
operations