پنجشنبه ۲۲ شهریور ۰۳ | ۲۳:۰۸ ۷ بازديد
The soil is the lifeblood of your crop or pasture. This important asset supplies nutrients, water
and oxygen to plants, supports machinery and animal traffic, and provides a medium for the
decomposition of crop and pasture residues.
Soil management will affect land productivity and environmental sustainability. Maintaining the
health of your soil to maximise productivity will require an awareness of soil characteristics and
how they should be managed.
Farms may have a variety of soil types that require specialised management to optimise
productivity and prevent land degradation. Different soil types occur for a variety of reasons, such
as different geology, position in the landscape and drainage.
This booklet is the first in a series of three booklets called ‘Know your Soils’. The three booklets
provide an easy and informative way for you, the farmer, to assess and understand your soil.
All three booklets are inter-linked and should be used together to achieve an understanding of
the way your soil behaves and how it should be managed.
Part 1: Introduction to Soils - This booklet provides detailed background
information on soil, including soil forming processes, soil profile descriptions,
physical characteristics of soil, and soil management and land degradation
issues.
Part 2: assessing Your Soils - This booklet details
eight exercises for you to carry out to assess some
characteristics of your soil. The topics covered include:
soil classing, the hole, soil colour and depth, stone
size and percentage, soil texture, friability, soil slaking/
dispersion and soil pH.
Part 3: Managing Your Soils - This booklet allows you
to use the information you have collected in Part 2, to
interpret the behaviour and physical characteristics of
your soil. Part 3 also provides management options for
some limitations such as poor structure, poor internal drainage and acid
soils.
1
P R e f a C e
and oxygen to plants, supports machinery and animal traffic, and provides a medium for the
decomposition of crop and pasture residues.
Soil management will affect land productivity and environmental sustainability. Maintaining the
health of your soil to maximise productivity will require an awareness of soil characteristics and
how they should be managed.
Farms may have a variety of soil types that require specialised management to optimise
productivity and prevent land degradation. Different soil types occur for a variety of reasons, such
as different geology, position in the landscape and drainage.
This booklet is the first in a series of three booklets called ‘Know your Soils’. The three booklets
provide an easy and informative way for you, the farmer, to assess and understand your soil.
All three booklets are inter-linked and should be used together to achieve an understanding of
the way your soil behaves and how it should be managed.
Part 1: Introduction to Soils - This booklet provides detailed background
information on soil, including soil forming processes, soil profile descriptions,
physical characteristics of soil, and soil management and land degradation
issues.
Part 2: assessing Your Soils - This booklet details
eight exercises for you to carry out to assess some
characteristics of your soil. The topics covered include:
soil classing, the hole, soil colour and depth, stone
size and percentage, soil texture, friability, soil slaking/
dispersion and soil pH.
Part 3: Managing Your Soils - This booklet allows you
to use the information you have collected in Part 2, to
interpret the behaviour and physical characteristics of
your soil. Part 3 also provides management options for
some limitations such as poor structure, poor internal drainage and acid
soils.
1
P R e f a C e
your soil, and most importantly, enable you to gain an understanding of your soil and how to manage it
better.
you can use the ‘Know your Soils’ booklets to monitor changes in the condition of your soil over time.
Part 2 will help you describe your soil and Part 3 will assist you in understanding and managing your soil.
it is recommended that you do not use this series as a ‘one off’. The routine use of ‘Know your Soils’
every three to five years will allow you to observe patterns and changes.
By assessing two or three paddocks each year you can develop baseline information for each paddock
and then re-sample to start the monitoring process. if you intend to monitor paddocks, it is important to
re-sample as close as possible to the original sampling point. Early detection of changes through regular
monitoring will enable problems to be managed and even prevented. This will reduce the detrimental
effects of soil degradation on productivity and the environment.
it is also a good idea to independently monitor the chemical conditions of your soil in conjunction with
this series. This will help you manage the application of fertilisers and allow you to work out if you have
any chemical problems.
in Part 3 you will identify limitations that can be managed. Limitations, such as subsoil acidification, are
likely to change over time and are costly and difficult to treat. Monitoring pH, particularly at depth, will
enable the early detection of subsoil acidification and provide an opportunity for prevention.
Recording sheets are located at the back of Part 2. These sheets will allow you to record the information
you collect so you can refer to them when you re-sample. you can independently do the same with your
chemical analysis.
Cross referencing between booklets
Each of the three booklets in the ‘Know your Soils’ Series is numbered for ease of reference. All
sections found in Part 1 have the prefix ‘1’. For example, 1.1 introduction to Soil and 1.5.5 wind
Erosion. whereas 2.7 Soil Slaking/Dispersion Exercise is a practical activity found in Part 2; and
Section 3.6 Determining Soil Drainage can be found in Part 3.
2
1.1.1 SoIl anD aGRICUlTURe
Agricultural viability depends upon a healthy soil. A healthy soil is obtained through knowledge
of the soil and the application of appropriate management practices. Poor management
practices can lead to soil degradation, which can reduce productivity. Soil is not a renewable
resource. The loss of 1 mm of topsoil can take 3000 years to replace.
Soil has a number of functions important for agricultural production, these being:
● A medium for plant growth supplying and retaining nutrients, oxygen and water
● A medium for the decomposition of crop and pasture residues
● An anchor for plants
● A medium that should support machinery and animal traffic under most soil conditions
without degradation.
Soil is essentially made up of four main fractions, but the fractions vary greatly in arrangement
and form, hence soils can be physically and chemically quite different. understanding why soil
can be so varied, and how different soils require different management is important for an
effective farming enterprise.
1.1.2 WHaT IS SoIl?
Soil is the unconsolidated outer layer of the Earth’s crust. it appears in a variety of forms
(different textures, colour, structure and nutrient content) depending on a number of factors
outlined further in this booklet.
Although soil is highly variable, there are
four main ingredients (fractions) that are
consistent with all types of soil: mineral,
organic matter, water and air. These four
fractions fall into two categories: solid
(mineral and organic matter) and non-
solid (water and air).
The solid category
The solid category makes up
approximately 50-70% by volume of the
total soil and consists of the mineral and
organic matter fractions. Combined, the
mineral and organic matter fractions give
the soil a characteristic known as texture.
i) Mineral fraction
The mineral fraction makes up about 95-99% of the solid category. it is comprised of the
weathered remains of parent rocks that are broken down over many thousands of years.
3
Non-Solid
Solid
Organic
Water
Air
Mineral
Figure 1 Approximate proportions of the
four soil fractions in a typical soil.
characteristics of soil are generally determined by the type of parent rock (geology) from
which it was formed.
The mineral fraction is made up of four main particles that are defined by the diameter of
the particle:
Gravel > 2 mm
Sand 0.02-2 mm
Silt 0.002-0.02 mm
Clay < 0.002 mm
The proportion of these particles plays an important role in the fertility of the soil and its
response to management.
Clay particles are the smallest particles of the mineral fraction. They are an important
component of soil as they have a negative electrical charge. This enables them to hold and
exchange nutrients (which also have an electrical charge). Clay particles in soil provide an
exchange site for plant nutrients. Clay soils are normally more fertile than sandy soils.
The type and quantity of clay in the soil can affect the amount of nutrients held for plant
use and the ease at which these nutrients are released to the plant. The electrical charge
on clay particles enables them to stick to other clay particles and also to sand and silt
particles (this is the reason why clays are so sticky). This can be good and bad in terms of
soil management as will be explained in Section 1.5 of this booklet: Soil Management and
Land Degradation.
Gravel, sand and silt particles do not have an electrical charge and have minimal ability to
hold and exchange plant nutrients. They do, however, have other important roles such as
aeration of the soil. Gravel and coarse sand particles are larger than clay, silt and fine sand
particles, and they have bigger gaps between them. Therefore more space is available for
movement of water and air through the soil.
A good mix of sand, silt and clay particles will allow the soil to hold sufficient nutrients as
well as allowing adequate exchange of air and water essential for plant growth.
ii) organic matter fraction
organic matter is the other part of the solid soil category. it consists of the remains of
living organisms in various stages of decomposition as well as living micro-organisms. in
agricultural soils in Victoria, organic matter can comprise up to 6% of the solid soil fraction
however it is more common for agricultural soils to have between 0.5 and 3% organic
matter. in forest soils, organic matter can comprise up to 20%.
organic matter occurs in various forms from undecomposed to completely decomposed
(humus), and all forms provide benefits for the soil. Like clay particles, humus is also
electrically charged and is able to store and release nutrients. Humus is also able to
increase the water holding capacity of the soil. This is particularly important for sandy soils
which have a low water holding capacity.
4
organic matter decomposing it to humus. Micro-organisms also live on products of living
plants, some providing benefits to the plant, others creating disease. Most soil organisms
decompose organic matter and release nutrients for plant growth as well as improving soil
structure. Micro-organisms in the soil are important for soil health.
The non-solid category
The non-solid category can be divided into two fractions: water and air.
water and air should comprise around 30-50% of an agricultural soil. This depends on the
time of year and the soil type. water and air are essential for plant growth. in particular,
oxygen and carbon dioxide need to be exchanged between the soil and the atmosphere for
root respiration to occur.
1.2 CHaRaCTeRISTICS of SoIl
There are three characteristics of soil that are important for plant growth and productivity:
physical, biological, and chemical. A change in one characteristic is likely to affect another.
Physical
The aspects of the soil that you can see and touch. Physical charactersitics include: soil
texture, soil colour, soil depth, soil structure, porosity (spaces between particles) and stone
content. The role physical properties play in soil health are:
● To supply water and air to plant roots and allow adequate water and air movement into
and through the soil profile.
● To store water for plant growth.
● To support machine and animal traffic.
Chemical
The ability to supply nutrients for plant growth and store nutrients in the profile without loss by
leaching. The ability to keep clay aggregates chemically stable which impacts on soil structure.
biological
The ability to support a healthy microbial population for organic matter breakdown (faeces
and crop and pasture residues), nutrient cycling and the growth of nitrogen fixing bacteria.
1.2.1 PHYSICal CHaRaCTeRISTICS
Soil texture
As mentioned above, soils are partially made up of a mineral fraction (gravel, sand, silt and
clay particles) and an organic matter fraction. it is these two fractions combined (minus the
gravel particles) that give the soil a characteristic known as texture. There are many different
texture grades depending on which particles (sand, silt, clay or organic matter) are dominant
(if any). Soil texture provides a good way of characterising soils and can be described through
the behaviour of a moist lump of soil when rubbed between your thumb and forefinger (refer
to 2.5 Soil Texture Exercise). Some examples of texture and their characteristics are as follows.
5
Sand - Particles are visible to the eye, feels gritty and sand grains can be heard when
rubbed. Sticks together only when moist e.g. beach sand.
Silt - Particles not visible to the eye, feels silky (like talcum powder) and can be
rolled when moist to form short rods. Sticks together when moist or dry.
Clay - Particles not visible to the eye, feels smooth and plastic and can be rolled to
form long rods when moist. Sticks together when moist or dry e.g. pottery clay.
Soils having a range of particle sizes and types
Loam - About 20 -25% clay with the remaining fraction composed of sand, silt and
organic matter.
Sandy loam - Loam with sand dominating.
Silt loam - Loam with silt dominating.
Clay loam- Loam with clay dominating.
Many other texture grades can be described and all differ due to the proportion of each
primary particle size and the amount of organic matter. Soil textures are often referred to as
light textured (sand dominant) or heavy textured (clay dominant).
The texture of the soil can change with depth. obvious changes in texture through the soil
profile can provide an easy way of assessing the different horizons (layers). Determining how
the soil texture changes (if at all) at depth is important in understanding what plant roots have
to contend with. in some cases the soil texture can differ markedly through the soil, ranging
from a light texture (e.g. sandy loam) and changing abruptly into a heavy texture (e.g. clay).
This is known as a texture contrast or duplex soil (refer to 1.3 Soil Profile). This could be a
problem for some plants. The ideal situation for plants is gradational soils, that is a soil texture
that gradually becomes heavier down the profile. Some soils do not change textures, that is,
they are the same texture throughout the soil (uniform soil). if the soil is clay all the way down,
it will often drain quite slowly, so plants that can cope with wet roots will grow best in this soil
type. Soil that is sandy all the way down will drain very quickly and plants that can deal with
dry conditions will be suited to this soil type.
Refer to 2.5 Soil Texture Exercise.
Water and nutrient holding cap
پنجشنبه ۲۲ شهریور ۰۳ | ۲۲:۴۹ ۸ بازديد
allies. For decades, motorcyclists have
enjoyed getting together in one location for
fun-filled days of races, hill climbs, concerts,
street festivals, and charity rides. Such events
are mushrooming as more towns seek to boost
their economy by attracting the new breed of
Rich Urban Bikers and baby boomer riders to
motorcycle rallies. In 2011, 54 major rallies
occurred throughout the country.
The largest and most famous of all is the
Sturgis Motorcycle Rally, held for more than
70 years in the small community of Sturgis
in the Black Hills of South Dakota. Every
August half a million motorcycling enthusiasts
and hundreds of vendors descend on Sturgis
for a week of races, stunts, bike demos, con-
certs, and parades. Many individual riders
and groups enjoy day trips through the Black
Hills to nearby sites, such as Mount Rushmore
National Memorial.
Sturgis also is home to a Motorcycle Muse-
um and Hall of Fame, which showcases nearly
100 motorcycles dating back to 1905 and hon-
ors motorcycle legends, celebrities, and others
who have had an impact on motorcycling.
• Riding for a cause. Philanthropy is a major
focus of the motorcycling community. Motor-
cycle clubs regularly sponsor rides and events
to support hospitals, food banks, the Red
Cross, and a host of charities that benefit vet-
erans, sick and needy children, and victims of
diseases such as AIDS, cancer, and diabetes.
• Gadgetry. Innumerable gadgets are available
to improve a motorcyclist’s safety, comfort, and
convenience. Headlight and brake light modu-
lators that flicker four times a second can aid
visibility of commuters who frequently dodge in
and out of traffic. Because road sensors that turn
a traffic light to green are not sensitive enough
to detect motorcycles, a rider tired of being stuck
at red lights may want a Green Light Trigger, a
magnet that attaches to the undercarriage of the
bike and is powerful enough to trip the sensor.
New high-tech audio and video gadgets
include a helmet cam to record and download
favorite road trips, a helmet intercom that
enables a rider to communicate with a friend
up to five miles away, and a handlebar-mount-
ed CB radio, audio, and intercom system.
With a device called Mix-It, a biker can plug in
43ENGLISH TEACHING FORUM | N u m b e r 3 2 0 1 3
multiple audio sources, such as satellite radio,
an iPod, cell phone, even a GPS and a radar
detector that will automatically override any
music being played.
• Environmentally friendly motorcycles. Motor-
cycle manufacturers have joined automobile
companies in the quest for less polluting,
more energy-efficient engines. Several electric-
and hydrogen-powered models already are on
the market, though it’s not clear how readily
bikers will accept them. They don’t look “cool,”
some complain, and they’re disturbingly quiet.
After all, what is motorcycling without that
distinctive roar of the engine?
* * *
However they are powered, whether they are
basic or fancy, motorcycles will no doubt remain
an integral part of American culture and continue
to hold a fascination for millions of riders. As one
anonymous author wrote: “Four wheels move the
body. Two wheels move the soul.”
Websites of Interest
American Motorcyclist Association
www.americanmotorcyclist.com
The American Motorcyclist Association, which claims to
be the world’s largest motorcycling organization, advocates for
bikers’ rights, sanctions competitions and recreational events,
and preserves the history of the sport through a Motorcycle
Hall of Fame Museum. This official website features news
about racing, touring, and upcoming events, motorcycle clubs,
and laws and issues affecting bikers.
Harley-Davidson
www.harley-davidson.com
In addition to providing information about motorcycling
events, learning to ride, and customizing a bike, this website of
the leading American motorcycle manufacturer offers a guide
to the Harley-Davidson Museum in Milwaukee and highlights
the growing diversity among its dealers, bike owners, and riders.
Motorcycle Safety Foundation
http://msf-usa.org
Safety is the key word here. This site promotes the Foun-
dation’s safe rider courses and offers safety tips for motorcy-
clists. Several booklets and documents are downloadable.
Phyllis Mcintosh is a freelance writer whose work has
appeared in many national magazines.
Motorcycle Jargon
ape hangers – motorcycle handlebars that are very high
and often raise the rider’s hands above the shoulders
cage – a car, truck, or other vehicle that confines
the inhabitants within an enclosed space (unlike a
motorcycle)
chopper – a motorcycle that has been customized by
“chopping off” nonessential parts to make it go faster
farkles – a combination of “function” and “sparkle”
that refers to motorcycle accessories, such as radar
detectors, GPS receivers, heated handlebar grips, and
satellite radios
knobbies – tires used by off-road motorcycle racers;
knobbies have large square knobs of rubber tread
arranged in various ways to best grab the dirt
motocross – off-road motorcycle racing held on
enclosed, rough circuits; the name is a combination
of motorcycle and cross-country
sidecar – a one-wheeled carriage for a single passen-
ger attached to the side of a motorcycle
squid – a younger motorcycle rider who does not
respect laws, follow safety rules, or wear proper gear
tricked out – adorned with many customizations
uncork – open up the throttle to obtain top speed
enjoyed getting together in one location for
fun-filled days of races, hill climbs, concerts,
street festivals, and charity rides. Such events
are mushrooming as more towns seek to boost
their economy by attracting the new breed of
Rich Urban Bikers and baby boomer riders to
motorcycle rallies. In 2011, 54 major rallies
occurred throughout the country.
The largest and most famous of all is the
Sturgis Motorcycle Rally, held for more than
70 years in the small community of Sturgis
in the Black Hills of South Dakota. Every
August half a million motorcycling enthusiasts
and hundreds of vendors descend on Sturgis
for a week of races, stunts, bike demos, con-
certs, and parades. Many individual riders
and groups enjoy day trips through the Black
Hills to nearby sites, such as Mount Rushmore
National Memorial.
Sturgis also is home to a Motorcycle Muse-
um and Hall of Fame, which showcases nearly
100 motorcycles dating back to 1905 and hon-
ors motorcycle legends, celebrities, and others
who have had an impact on motorcycling.
• Riding for a cause. Philanthropy is a major
focus of the motorcycling community. Motor-
cycle clubs regularly sponsor rides and events
to support hospitals, food banks, the Red
Cross, and a host of charities that benefit vet-
erans, sick and needy children, and victims of
diseases such as AIDS, cancer, and diabetes.
• Gadgetry. Innumerable gadgets are available
to improve a motorcyclist’s safety, comfort, and
convenience. Headlight and brake light modu-
lators that flicker four times a second can aid
visibility of commuters who frequently dodge in
and out of traffic. Because road sensors that turn
a traffic light to green are not sensitive enough
to detect motorcycles, a rider tired of being stuck
at red lights may want a Green Light Trigger, a
magnet that attaches to the undercarriage of the
bike and is powerful enough to trip the sensor.
New high-tech audio and video gadgets
include a helmet cam to record and download
favorite road trips, a helmet intercom that
enables a rider to communicate with a friend
up to five miles away, and a handlebar-mount-
ed CB radio, audio, and intercom system.
With a device called Mix-It, a biker can plug in
multiple audio sources, such as satellite radio,
an iPod, cell phone, even a GPS and a radar
detector that will automatically override any
music being played.
• Environmentally friendly motorcycles. Motor-
cycle manufacturers have joined automobile
companies in the quest for less polluting,
more energy-efficient engines. Several electric-
and hydrogen-powered models already are on
the market, though it’s not clear how readily
bikers will accept them. They don’t look “cool,”
some complain, and they’re disturbingly quiet.
After all, what is motorcycling without that
distinctive roar of the engine?
* * *
However they are powered, whether they are
basic or fancy, motorcycles will no doubt remain
an integral part of American culture and continue
to hold a fascination for millions of riders. As one
anonymous author wrote: “Four wheels move the
body. Two wheels move the soul.”
Websites of Interest
American Motorcyclist Association
www.americanmotorcyclist.com
The American Motorcyclist Association, which claims to
be the world’s largest motorcycling organization, advocates for
bikers’ rights, sanctions competitions and recreational events,
and preserves the history of the sport through a Motorcycle
Hall of Fame Museum. This official website features news
about racing, touring, and upcoming events, motorcycle clubs,
and laws and issues affecting bikers.
Harley-Davidson
www.harley-davidson.com
In addition to providing information about motorcycling
events, learning to ride, and customizing a bike, this website of
the leading American motorcycle manufacturer offers a guide
to the Harley-Davidson Museum in Milwaukee and highlights
the growing diversity among its dealers, bike owners, and riders.
Motorcycle Safety Foundation
http://msf-usa.org
Safety is the key word here. This site promotes the Foun-
dation’s safe rider courses and offers safety tips for motorcy-
clists. Several booklets and documents are downloadable.
Phyllis Mcintosh is a freelance writer whose work has
appeared in many national magazines.
Motorcycle Jargon
ape hangers – motorcycle handlebars that are very high
and often raise the rider’s hands above the shoulders
cage – a car, truck, or other vehicle that confines
the inhabitants within an enclosed space (unlike a
motorcycle)
chopper – a motorcycle that has been customized by
“chopping off” nonessential parts to make it go faster
farkles – a combination of “function” and “sparkle”
that refers to motorcycle accessories, such as radar
detectors, GPS receivers, heated handlebar grips, and
satellite radios
knobbies – tires used by off-road motorcycle racers;
knobbies have large square knobs of rubber tread
arranged in various ways to best grab the dirt
motocross – off-road motorcycle racing held on
enclosed, rough circuits; the name is a combination
of motorcycle and cross-country
sidecar – a one-wheeled carriage for a single passen-
ger attached to the side of a motorcycle
squid – a younger motorcycle rider who does not
respect laws, follow safety rules, or wear proper gear
tricked out – adorned with many customizations
uncork – open up the throttle to obtain top speed
پنجشنبه ۲۲ شهریور ۰۳ | ۲۲:۴۳ ۷ بازديد
distributed, posted, or reproduced in any form by digital or mechanical
means without prior written permission of the publisher.For general queries, contact webmaster@press.princeton.edu
Canines are one of the most exciting groups of mammals on our planet. They
come and go on the evolutionary stage, both in terms of time and space. At
the start of the twenty-first century, at a range of locations across the Northern
Hemisphere, wolves were on the brink of extinction. Now, they are back in many
countries across Europe and also in the United States. However, life is never the
same—evolution cannot repeat itself. These modern wolves also hybridize with
coyotes and free-ranging dogs, possibly giving way to new forms of canine. In
Europe, hunters had not seen the golden jackal for a century, but now, within
the last ten years, jackals have reconquered old territories and ventured into
new ones. Some of them have been reported hunting in the north of Europe,
close to the Baltic Sea.
The existence of dogs and their many varieties is one of the most
extraordinary proofs for evolution. Charles Darwin himself referred to domestic
animals and especially to dogs when citing animal examples of evolution.
However, as change is part of evolution, we should not expect the variation we
have in our dogs today to stay with us forever. New times and new challenges
may prompt the evolution of new creatures, and dogs are no exception.
While mutual friendship between dogs and humans may exist in billions of
households around the world, in many situations we still want to be in charge.
Humans can be quite a nuisance in this respect. One such case is dog breeding.
Reproduction is a key to the evolution of a species, and any major failure can
have fatal consequences in the long run. Especially in the case of purebred dogs,
which are close to the hearts of many people, present breeding practices need to
Below Despite having
been domesticated, dogs
often remind us of their
wild relatives.© Copyright, Princeton University Press. No part of this book may be
distributed, posted, or reproduced in any form by digital or mechanical
means without prior written permission of the publisher.For general queries, contact webmaster@press.princeton.edu
males or the “perfect” champion male is advantageous for any breed. It may
lead to a fatally reduced breeding population, the increase of inbreeding, and
the emergence of physical malformations, illnesses, and behavioral problems.
As so many of us now live in cities, dogs may be one of our few connections
to nature, so we should make every effort to keep them as healthy as possible
and offer them the best life while allowing them to express their full biological
potential. Dogs should be kept as companions only if the owner has the time
and devotion to allow them the freedom of being a dog in addition to being a
member of a family or other social community of humans. In this sense, dogs
should be seen as the “wolves of the cities”—independent whether they are
big or small, like to bark, or roam free in our green spaces.
Let’s allow dogs to work if they enjoy it. People may or may not like to
work, but dogs are different. They have been selected to like working with
people, participating in joint activities. Research has also shown that many dogs
are keen to work for people’s “love,” social feedback, and for the feeling that they
are part of the family. As well as being genetic, as in the case of working breeds,
this tendency can be facilitated through dog training. Thus, a well-trained dog,
which has been chosen for this task, enjoys interacting with its owner. They
would probably suffer if they were prevented from doing so. For dogs, working
is closer to some kind of social engagement than a form of hard labor. In
exchange, people express their feelings toward their dogs. But we should be
careful not to demand too much; dogs also deserve to be dogs.© Copyright, Princeton University Press. No part of this book may be
distributed, posted, or reproduced in any form by digital or mechanical
means without prior written permission of the publisher.For general queries, contact webmaster@press.princeton.edu
distributed, posted, or reproduced in any form by digital or mechanical
means without prior written permission of the publisher.For general queries, contact webmaster@press.princeton.edu
In this book, we hope to show you the dog from many different perspectives.
Dogs are descendants of extinct wolflike canines, so they share many features
with their wild cousins. Dogs also have a long and specific history with humans,
and generations of dogs have witnessed how our societies have changed in the
last 3,000–4,000 years. And, despite the fact that our relationship with dogs has
become more intimate in some ways, dogs still remain dogs, in a good sense. So,
we need to know about their biology: how they see, hear, and smell, and how they
interact with one other and with humans, showing a wide array of sophisticated
behavioral signals for communication. Dog owners have to become aware of the
mental abilities of their companions in order to provide them with the necessary
challenges to keep their minds sharp and active. This also ensures that dogs have
a good quality of life during aging, as a more experienced and skillful dog has a
lower chance of showing cognitive decline when it gets older.
Knowing about the development of dogs as puppies is crucial because this is
the time when dog owners and breeders can have a huge influence on the future
character of the dog. In sharp contrast to humans, who develop for around 18
years, in dogs maturation is much shorter, only one to two years. What a young
dog may learn spontaneously after a few incidents may take much longer for an
adult dog to acquire. Puppies learn as soon they are born, and if something is
learned early, this can be remembered for their whole life.
And what about our future with dogs? In recent years, our societies have been
changing at a rocketing speed. So far, dogs have been an exceptional means of
providing us with a unique experience of friendship but now there are new
competitors on the horizon. Television, the internet, and cell phones are giving
many people, especially the young, the sense of being members of a community
and there seems to be less time for developing human–canine relationships within
the home. In the industrialized countries, the population of family dog numbers
is stagnating or on the decrease—is this a sign of a relationship in decline?
Who can tell the future? But, for sure, humans have some responsibility for
their creatures. The future of dogs lies in their behavioral flexibility, their ability
to adapt to the newly emerging human needs in modern society. The new roles
dogs play in our society give rise to new challenges for both dogs and dog
trainers. We all have to make sure that dogs’ needs are met, so they will continue
to give us their company for centuries to come.
We hope that this book, which includes some of the newest insights from
dog science, will help you, the reader, to respect your companion even more, or
encourage you to find one of these wonderful partners to share your life with.
11INTRODUCING THE DOG
Below Dogs, especially
those living in cities, need
a lot of exercise to have
a good quality of life.© Copyright, Princeton University Press. No part of this book may be
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distributed, posted, or reproduced in any form by digital or mechanical
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Evolution & Ecology© Copyright, Princeton University Press. No part of this book may be
distributed, posted, or reproduced in any form by digital or mechanical
means without prior written permission of the publisher.For general queries, contact webmaster@press.princeton.edu
There is a rather striking resemblance
between the appearance of any extant
member of family Canidae (the group of
carnivores closely related to and including
dogs) and the long-ago extinct Miacis, the
common ancestor of terrestrial predators.
Thus, the Canidae show ancient
anatomical features, or rather they are
similar to the ancient form. This does
not mean that the shape and functions
of dogs and their closest relatives are
obsolete—the high number of species still
existing testifies just the opposite: The
ancient form is still successful.
ORIGINS ON THE
AMERICAN CONTINENT
The history of carnivorous mammals
started about 55 million years ago (mya),
not so long after the last of the great
dinosaurs had disappeared at the end
of the Cretaceous. Interestingly, Miacis
emerged in North America—and the
larger part of the evolution of Canidae
also happened there. In the Paleocene
(about 50 mya) the two main divisions of
carnivores diverged, forming the catlike
feliforms and the wolflike caniforms.
Toward the end of the Paleocene,
about 34 mya, the Caninae subfamily
appeared, and this would become the
Above The Miacis,
a primitive carnivore,
populated both Eurasia
and the North American
continent about 55-33
million years ago.
Animals like this were
the ancestors of extant
canids, bears, and
weasels.
Right Canids can look
considerably different. The
maned wolf is the tallest of all
(3 feet/0.9 m at the withers).
The stocky bush dog is no bigger
than a dachshund. Both live in
South America.
Maned wolf
Bush dog
Miacis
only surviving subfamily of the
Canidae—and the ancestor of all the
extant species of foxes, jackals, and
wolves. The secret for their success may
be that they were not overtly restricted
to the hypercarnivorous (“meat only”)
diet of other subfamilies, which became
extinct because of their narrow ecological
tolerance of environmental changes.
پنجشنبه ۲۲ شهریور ۰۳ | ۲۲:۴۰ ۸ بازديد
of complex molecules, the role of chemistry in star and
planet formation, the chemistry of planetary atmospheres,
and the presence of organic molecules in space.
Astrochemistry differs from astrophysics in its specific
focus on the chemical aspects of astronomical objects.
While astrophysics broadly covers the physics of celestial
bodies, astrochemistry addresses the chemical reactions
and processes occurring within those objects. It examines
the formation and destruction of molecules, the impact of
radiation and particle interactions on chemical reactions,
and the role of chemical processes in shaping the cosmos.
Astrochemistry employs a range of observational and
laboratory techniques to study the chemical composition
of space. Observations are made using telescopes,
spectroscopy, and other instruments capable of detecting
molecular signatures in different regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum. Laboratory experiments
simulate the extreme conditions found in space to
understand the chemical reactions that occur in such
environments.
System-thinking: The Undercurrent of
Unity
I had a teacher (Late Professor Sisir Kumar Bhanja at St.
Xavier’s College, Kolkata) in my undergraduate level,
who used to tell me “You should be able to see the
undercurrent of unity.”
Very less people can see that. However, it is not
impossible. Professionally, I have seen such people. They
are the true human assets. They are system-thinkers. They
understand the subsystems thoroughly, but also
understand the interactions between the subsystems that
dictate the overall system behavior.
Developing a multi-disciplinary, system-level view of
space science and exploration is indeed imperative, as it
facilitates understanding of the complex interconnections
and broader context of the field. It is not important only
to grasp the physical concepts about the celestial bodies,
processes, and interaction, but also to develop space-
borne or even ground-based instruments for observations.
It is a rare combination that an individual is good at both
science and engineering, but once this combination is
achieved, wonders can happen! You can train yourself to
achieve such a multi-faceted talent from school level.
Now, the question is, how can we take a few steps towards
that?
While there is no royal road to achieve system-thinking,
here are a few suggestions on how students can cultivate
such a perspective:
Unconventional combination of subjects: While
specific domains have their importance, students can opt
for elective courses or minors in related fields. For
example, an engineering student interested in space
science can take courses in astrophysics, planetary
science, or space policy. Similarly, a physics student can
explore courses in aerospace engineering or satellite
communications. This interdisciplinary exposure helps
bridge the knowledge gaps and provides a holistic
understanding.
Engage in Projects: While seeing is believing, doing is
assimilating. Engage in projects that require collaboration
across different disciplines. This could involve working
with students or faculty members from diverse
backgrounds such as engineering, computer science,
biology, or even social sciences. By participating in such
projects, students can learn to appreciate the
interconnectedness of different fields and gain exposure
to new perspectives and methodologies.
Attend Conferences and Workshops: Participate in
conferences, workshops, and seminars that focus on space
science and exploration. These events often bring together
experts from various disciplines who share their research
and insights. Attending such gatherings can broaden
understanding of the different aspects and challenges
involved in space science. It also provides opportunities
for networking and collaboration with professionals in
diverse fields.
Engage in Space-related Clubs and Organizations:
Joining space-related clubs or organizations on campus
can provide exposure to a wide range of disciplines and
activities related to space exploration. These groups often
organize events, workshops, and discussions that cover
different aspects of space science, including engineering,
policy, and more. Active participation in such
organizations can foster a multi-disciplinary mindset and
encourage collaboration with students from various
backgrounds.
Stay Updated with Current Research: It could be a bit
of extra mile for a high school student, but you can always
start with popular science magazines. Gradually, you will
be able to follow the topics related to space science and
technology. Paving this way, keep abreast of the latest
research and developments in space science and
exploration. Once you grow matured, start reading
scientific journals and articles, that cover a wide range of
topics. This habit of exploring different disciplines within
space science can help students develop a system-level
understanding by connecting the dots between various
areas of research.
Seek Mentorship: Connect with professors or
professionals who have expertise in interdisciplinary
fields related to space science and exploration. Seek their
guidance and mentorship to understand how different
domains converge and how to cultivate a multi-
disciplinary perspective. Mentors can provide valuable
insights, recommend resources, and offer opportunities
for involvement in interdisciplinary projects or research.
Remember, developing a multi-disciplinary, system-level
view takes time and effort. It requires an open mindset,
curiosity, and a willingness to explore beyond one's
primary domain of study. By actively seeking
opportunities to integrate knowledge from diverse fields,
students can gain a broader understanding of space
science and exploration, which will be valuable in their
future career.
International Cooperation in Space
Exploration
The multi-disciplinary nature of space exploration
extends to other technologies as well. For instance,
propulsion systems require expertise in aerospace
engineering, thermodynamics, and materials science to
develop efficient engines capable of propelling spacecraft
over vast distances. Communication systems involve the
integration of electrical engineering, signal processing,
and antenna design to establish reliable communication
links between spacecraft and Earth.
The collaborative effort across disciplines is crucial for
space exploration as it brings together diverse
perspectives and expertise, enabling the development of
innovative solutions and the successful realization of
complex missions. Space exploration continues to drive
technological advancements, pushing the boundaries of
human knowledge and inspiring future generations to
explore the wonders of the universe.
International cooperation plays a pivotal role in advancing
space exploration by fostering collaboration, sharing
resources, and leveraging expertise from various nations.
The scale and complexity of space missions often
necessitate joint efforts and partnerships between
countries to achieve common goals and maximize
scientific discoveries.
One of the key aspects of international cooperation is the
formation of joint science working groups. These groups
bring together scientists and researchers from different
countries to collaborate on mission planning, data
analysis, and scientific discoveries. By pooling their
knowledge and resources, scientists can tackle complex
research questions and gain a more comprehensive
understanding of celestial phenomena.
Joint missions are another crucial aspect of international
cooperation. Collaborative missions allow countries to
combine their technical capabilities and resources to
undertake ambitious projects that would be challenging or
cost-prohibitive for a single nation. Examples include the
International Space Station (ISS), a multinational research
laboratory orbiting Earth, which serves as a platform for
scientific experiments and technological advancements.
The joint development of hardware is another area where
international cooperation shines. By sharing expertise and
resources, countries can collectively develop advanced
spacecraft, telescopes, and other instruments that enable
ground-breaking scientific discoveries.
Coordinated observations and inter-calibration of science
instruments between multiple missions are crucial for
gathering accurate and complementary data. When
multiple missions observe the same celestial object or
phenomenon, the data can be cross-validated, improving
the scientific understanding and reducing uncertainties.
International collaboration allows for better coordination
and harmonization of observations, leading to more robust
and reliable scientific results.
International cooperation also extends to safety and
emergency response. Countries collaborate on astronaut
rescue and recovery plans, ensuring the safety of
astronauts in case of contingencies during space missions.
This cooperative effort underscores the shared
commitment to the well-being and success of human
space exploration.
Professional exchange programs are essential for
fostering collaboration and knowledge sharing among
scientists, engineers, and technicians. International
exchange programs allow experts to work together, learn
from each other's experiences, and build long-lasting
relationships. These exchanges facilitate the transfer of
technical expertise and promote cultural understanding,
enhancing the global space community.
Furthermore, international cooperation in space
exploration promotes diplomacy and peaceful relations
among nations. It serves as a platform for countries to
come together, transcending geopolitical boundaries, and
work towards a common scientific endeavor that benefits
all of humanity.
To sum up, international cooperation is of paramount
importance in space exploration. Joint science working
groups, collaborative missions, shared hardware
development, coordinated observations, inter-calibration
of science instruments, astronaut rescue and recovery
plans, professional exchange programs, and other aspects
foster synergy among nations, accelerate scientific
progress, and enable breakthrough discoveries. By joining
forces, countries can overcome technical, financial, and
logistical challenges, pushing the boundaries of our
knowledge and inspiring future generations to explore the
wonders of the universe.
Summary
This booklet covers in brief the general aspects of space
science and space exploration. The objective has been to
present, in a nutshell, the holistic view of the domain of
space science and technology to the inquisitive minds,
which would provoke system level of thinking. The
motivation behind this work is an attempt to offer a
comprehensive vision of the space science, as well as to
help the readers to grasp the significance of each of the
apparently different aspects and appreciate the collective
harmony.
To summarise, this work highlighted the diverse aspects
of space science and the interconnectedness of various
disciplines, along with the importance of international
cooperation in unravelling the mysteries of the cosmos.
The article delved into the concepts of Earth's geosphere,
biosphere, near-Earth space, solar system, Milky Way
galaxy, and the observable universe.
The booklet also touched upon the Indian Space Research
Organisation (ISRO)'s space science program. ISRO's
contributions, such as lunar and Mars missions,
highlighted the country's commitment to advancing space
exploration and technology. The discussion also
underscored the significance of system level thinking in
space science and technology. It emphasized the
interconnectedness of various disciplines and the
necessity of considering the broader picture when
approaching complex problems. This holistic approach
ensures a comprehensive understanding of the cosmos
and enables the development of innovative solutions.
Finally, this work stressed the importance of international
cooperation. Collaboration between nations allows for the
sharing of resources, expertise, and data, leading to
accelerated scientific progress. It fosters a spirit of
exploration that transcends borders and unites humanity
in our collective quest for knowledge.
پنجشنبه ۲۲ شهریور ۰۳ | ۲۱:۵۴ ۵ بازديد
ou take on the role of members of the unofficial gang of the “Baker Street Irregulars”, founded by the famous Sher-
lock Holmes to keep him informed about the word on the street and help him in mysterious cases. This book
contains ten mysterious cases which will be up to you to solve. Four of these cases (books 1 to 4) form the Jack the
Ripper campaign and may allow you to catch the famous serial killer. The other six cases are unconnected.
For each case, you’ll have a series of leads to follow, a map of London, a directory, and the local press.
You also have a list of informants which contain some very qualified people who will assist you in your research (medical
examiner, criminologist, sources…)
Armed with all these elements and with your imagination, you’ll walk the streets of London looking for clues which will
allow you to solve the enigma and answer a series of questions about the case. But nothing’s ever as simple as it seems, and
you will have to be wise if you don’t want to be ridiculed during your final confrontation with Holmes!
Will you surpass the master?
OBJECT OF THE GAME
h 2 h
MAP OF LONDON
This map represents the Victorian city of London in a simplified way. During the game, the map will allow you to locate, for
example, a specific place or verify an alibi. For practical reasons, London is divided into 5 neighbourhoods (North West or
NW, West Centre or WC, South West or SW, East Centre or EC, and South East or SE) divided by blue lines and the Thames.
Each neighbourhood contains numbers which correspond to the addresses of people you will go and question. This division
is also used in the book’s chapters and in the directory. For example, the address of Hyde Park is 95 NW (abridged form, used
in the booklets or in the directory), or otherwise 95 Park Lane NW (long form including the street name, used in the news-
paper). On the map, the places marked in red represent specific areas (such as the British Museum), and the places marked in
black are police stations. Other places aren’t fixed and a given address can thus change ownership from one case to the next. In
addition, numbers indicate a housing block. Thus, the hotel Dacre is located at 62 EC, but it is possible that a character could
also have that address, but without living at the hotel.
In one of the corners of the map is a travel time duration scale. That scale will sometimes allow you to check the movements
of some suspects and thus verify their alibi. To simplify the game, we’ll consider their speed to be fixed, no matter which trans-
port method is used. Of course, the travel time of the players is never taken into account.
lock Holmes to keep him informed about the word on the street and help him in mysterious cases. This book
contains ten mysterious cases which will be up to you to solve. Four of these cases (books 1 to 4) form the Jack the
Ripper campaign and may allow you to catch the famous serial killer. The other six cases are unconnected.
For each case, you’ll have a series of leads to follow, a map of London, a directory, and the local press.
You also have a list of informants which contain some very qualified people who will assist you in your research (medical
examiner, criminologist, sources…)
Armed with all these elements and with your imagination, you’ll walk the streets of London looking for clues which will
allow you to solve the enigma and answer a series of questions about the case. But nothing’s ever as simple as it seems, and
you will have to be wise if you don’t want to be ridiculed during your final confrontation with Holmes!
Will you surpass the master?
OBJECT OF THE GAME
MAP OF LONDON
This map represents the Victorian city of London in a simplified way. During the game, the map will allow you to locate, for
example, a specific place or verify an alibi. For practical reasons, London is divided into 5 neighbourhoods (North West or
NW, West Centre or WC, South West or SW, East Centre or EC, and South East or SE) divided by blue lines and the Thames.
Each neighbourhood contains numbers which correspond to the addresses of people you will go and question. This division
is also used in the book’s chapters and in the directory. For example, the address of Hyde Park is 95 NW (abridged form, used
in the booklets or in the directory), or otherwise 95 Park Lane NW (long form including the street name, used in the news-
paper). On the map, the places marked in red represent specific areas (such as the British Museum), and the places marked in
black are police stations. Other places aren’t fixed and a given address can thus change ownership from one case to the next. In
addition, numbers indicate a housing block. Thus, the hotel Dacre is located at 62 EC, but it is possible that a character could
also have that address, but without living at the hotel.
In one of the corners of the map is a travel time duration scale. That scale will sometimes allow you to check the movements
of some suspects and thus verify their alibi. To simplify the game, we’ll consider their speed to be fixed, no matter which trans-
port method is used. Of course, the travel time of the players is never taken into account.
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