gfdgfdg34534

25
this relationship between nicotine intake and behaviour as the machine puffing patterns are
standardised and the ventilation holes cannot be covered.
Machine delivered measurements differ greatly from smoke intake measures from smokers
[28]
Nicotine intake per cigarette smoked, as estimated from salivary cotinine level, did not
correspond with machine-smoked yields at any level of nicotine yield.
The second problem with the reduction in tar yield approach concerns the concept of “tar”.
There are more than 2000 chemical constituents in tobacco and about twice that number
when tobacco is burned during smoking. Tar has different compositions across different
products and across different countries. Hence the concept of tar as a single homogeneous
toxic substance is very misleading.
Hoffmann has demonstrated how trends in the concentrations of different carcinogens
within tobacco smoke change differently and independently of tar over time[29,30] , for
example, NNK did not correlate at all with tar yields and increased between the late 70s
and early 90s.
The concept of “tar” is therefore outdated and needs to be replaced with a more
sophisticated understanding of the different constituents of tobacco and/or smoke.
It is now broadly recognised that the ISO/FTC standard measurement methodology is
inappropriate as a basis for regulating the harm caused by cigarettes. Reductions in
machine-smoked tar yields can be achieved relatively easily by cosmetic changes to the

26
cigarette, and, together with compensatory changes in smoking behaviour, they do not
result in differences in exposure to the smoker.
Intense Smoking Regimes
Some countries have introduced more intense standards for machine cigarette testing.
Health Canada adopted the modified ISO test method in their federal tobacco reporting
regulation and required both standard and modified measurements to be provided to
consumers on packets in the form of a range.
Standard ISO Modified ISO
(Canadian)
Massachusetts
Puff Volume [ml] 35 55 45
Puff Interval [s] 60 30 30
Puff Duration [s] 2 2 2
Ventilation Holes Not blocked Fully blocked 50% blocked
The philosophy of the Massachusetts Department of Health was not to obtain a maximum
yield (differing from the Canadian regime) but a more realistic estimate of the yield to an
average smoker. The modified (Canadian) smoking regime is informative as it should
theoretically provide figures on a maximum amount of smoke which could be delivered to
the smoker.
Tar/Nicotine ratios
An alternative adaptation of the ISO tests was proposed by Professor Michael Russell in
1976. He suggested that cigarette smoking could be made less hazardous by reducing tar
and other toxins relative to nicotine[31]. This was based on the fact that smokers tend to
regulate their nicotine intake, so it would be favourable to reduce the quantity of toxins for
a given dose of nicotine over time.
Article 4: stipulates that the yield should be measured on standard smoking machines to
ISO specifications making reference to the ISO standards 4387, 10315 and 8454 for tar,
nicotine and carbon monoxide respectively, as well as ISO standard 8243 concerning the
tar and nicotine indications on packets.
Article 5: stipulates that the machine measured yields of nicotine, CO and tar must be
displayed on cigarette packets. This article also establishes new bolder, larger, black and
white health warnings and traceable markings on tobacco packets enabling the place and
time of manufacture to be determined.
The directive requires the printing of tar, nicotine and CO yields of cigarettes on the
packets. The provision has been strongly criticised as the tar and nicotine yields are based
on ISO measurements and do not provide meaningful information for consumers, as
discussed above.

27
In Canada, a range of yields (from the lowest possible to the highest possible) is published
on cigarette packets. Providing a low and high range for emission levels of toxic chemicals
is reflective of how people smoke differently and provides a more accurate indication of
the real health risks to individuals exposed to tobacco smoke.
Another way to inform smokers could be through the use of packet inserts.
Article 6: stipulates that a list of all ingredients and their quantities used in manufacturing
tobacco products by brand name and type should be supplied by 31st December 2002 and
annually thereafter. The list had to be accompanied by a statement setting out reasons for
inclusion of the ingredients, indicating function and category and available toxicological
data regarding the ingredients in burnt or unburnt form, referring in particular to health and
addictive effects.
The Directive defines ingredient as : “Any substance or any constituent except for tobacco
leaf and other natural or unprocessed tobacco plant parts used in the manufacture or
preparation of a tobacco product and still present in the finished product, even if in altered
form, including paper, filter, inks and adhesives”
Ammonia is not mentioned in the list of ingredients provided by Philip Morris to the
Member States. The claim that PM does not add ammonia as an ingredient does not mean
that ammonia is not present in the product. The tests could not indicate whether ammonia
was added during the agricultural or manufacturing process.
Article 7: misleading descriptors and the use of other signs (texts, names, trade marks and
figurative or other signs) suggesting that some tobacco products were less harmful than
others, are banned by 30th September 2003.
Article 9: stresses the need to adapt to scientific and technical process in measurement
methods (in particular those given under Article 4), health warnings and identification
markings.
Article 11: outlines that by 31st December 2004 and every year thereafter the EC would
submit a report on the application of the directive to the European Parliament, the Council
and the Economic and Social Committee, with the assistance of scientific and technical
experts. A number of areas are listed for attention in the report:
Methodologies for more realistic assessing and regulating toxic exposure and harm
Subsequent reduction of the maximum yields laid down in Article 3
Possible links between these yields
Methodologies for more realistically assessing and regulating toxic exposure and
harm
Development of standardised testing methods to measure the yields of constituents
in cigarette smoke other than tar, nicotine and CO.

28
Ingredients
Evaluation of the addictive affects of the ingredients which encourage addiction
Toxicological data to be required from manufacturers on ingredients and the
manner in which they should be tested in order to allow public health authorities to
assess their use
Which constituents should be regulated? [32]
From over 4000 smoke constituents, 69 have been considered as possible or proven
carcinogens. The following table shows a selection of these compounds:
Compound Name IARC Group Compound Name IARC Group
Benzo[a]pyrene 1 NNAL 2 B
4-Aminobiphenyl 1 1,3 – Butadiene 2 A
2-Naphthylamine 1 Acetaldehyde 2 B
Formaldehyde 1 Isoprene 2 B
Benzene 1 Styrene 2 B
Ethylene Oxide 1 Catechol 2 B
Cadmium 1 Nickel 2 B
NNK 1 Cobalt 2 B
NNN 1 Lead 2 B
IARC Group I : Carcinogenic to humans
IARC Group II: Probably carcinogenic to humans
IARC Group III: Possibly carcinogenic to humans
The above compounds are mainly formed during combustion processes (exceptions are the
metals and N-nitrosamines, the latter formed during fermentation of tobacco leaves),
therefore it is rather difficult to regulate these compounds . Technological modifications
of the cigarette design influence the amount formed of each of the above listed compounds.
A second important group of compounds which can potentially be regulated are the
additives. Additives can reach and be entirely or partially part of the vapor phase of smoke
through micro-distillation processes. This makes regulation necessary for those additives,
which are directly or indirectly harmful to health.
Additives are indirectly harmful to health when added to make smoke easier to inhale
(giving an incentive to smoke), to enhance the appeal of cigarettes to young people, or
when active additives are added to increase the speed and size of the nicotine “hit”,
increasing the chance of addicting a smoker. Moreover, additives may contribute to an
increase of tar and CO formation during the burning process.

29
Environmental Tobacco Smoke
The aim of occupational health and safety legislation is to provide a safe work
environment.
Working in an environment where smoking is permitted, as well as encouraging active
smoking, can lead to high levels of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS)
deriving from employee smokers and general public smokers visiting such workplaces.
This is particularly a problem in the entertainment industry, e.g. pubs and nightclubs,
where large numbers of patrons smoke.
Environmental Tobacco Smoke Constituents
ETS comprises exhaled mainstream smoke, sidestream smoke emitted from smouldering
tobacco, contaminants emitted during the puffs and contaminants that diffuse through the
cigarette paper and the mouth end of cigarettes between puffs.
Emissions contain both particle phase and vapour phase contaminants. Sidestream smoke
is the major component of ETS, contributing over half of the particulate matter and nearly
all of the vapour phase.
Every time someone lights up a cigarette, cigar or pipe,
tobacco smoke enters the air from two sources. The first
is mainstream smoke, which the smoker pulls through the
mouthpiece when inhaling or puffing. Non-smokers are
also exposed to mainstream smoke after it is exhaled. The
second, and even more dangerous source, is sidestream
smoke, which goes directly into the air from the burning
tobacco.
There are substantial similarities as well as differences between the mainstream smoke and
sidestream smoke components of ETS. The main differences are due to the differences
between the tobacco combustion temperature, pH and the degree of dilution with air. This
dilution is accompanied by a corresponding rapid decrease in temperature.
Mainstream smoke is generated at a higher temperature than sidestream smoke.
Mainstream Smoke : 800-900 ˚C
Sidestream Smoke : 600 ˚C
Mainstream Smoke has a lower pH than sidestream smoke.

30
Mainstream Smoke : 6.0 – 6.7
Sidestream Smoke : 6.7 – 7.5
Differences in mainstream smoke and sidestream smoke are also ascribable to differences
in the oxygen content.
Mainstream Smoke : 16 %
Sidestream Smoke : 2 %
Because sidestream smoke is produced at lower temperatures and under more reducing
conditions than mainstream smoke, many carcinogens and other toxicants are generated in
greater amounts in sidestream smoke than in mainstream smoke.
After its production, sidestream smoke is rapidly diluted in the air. This results in the
sidestream smoke particle size distribution being smaller than in mainstream smoke. For
example, nicotine is predominantly present in the particle phase in mainstream smoke but
it is found mainly in the gas phase in sidestream smoke. This shift to the gas phase is due
to the rapid dilution in sidestream smoke. The particle size range for sidestream smoke is
typically 0.01-1.0 µm while the mainstream smoke particle size is typically 0.1-1.0 µm.
These differences in size distributions for sidestream smoke and mainstream smoke
particles, as well as the different breathing patterns of smokers and non-smokers, have
implications for the deposition patterns of the particles in the various regions of the human
respiratory tract.
In addition to the production of vapours and particulates, tobacco smoking causes
significant emissions of carbon monoxide. Environmental tobacco smoke in dwellings,
offices, vehicles and restaurants can raise the 8-hour average CO concentration by up to
23-46 mg/m3 (2-40 ppm).
Removal of ETS by increasing the ventilation rate [25]
Restaurant and bar owners argued that increasing the ventilation rate would lower the
ETS-pollution level to an extent that staying in these location would no longer present a
health risk.
Experiments conducted at the European Commission’s DG Joint Research Centre disprove
this argument.
Twenty cigarettes were smoked inside a 30m3 walk-in environmental chamber. A selection
of VOC and inorganic gases were measured, varying the air exchange rate (AER). The
experiments have shown that achievable ventilation rates inside a restuarant or pub, do not
lower ETS-pollution to such a level not to cause any health risk.

31
Measurements of carbon monoxide levels at various air-exchange rates (20 cigarettes
smoked)
Measurements of indoor air concentrations of ETS constituents[23,24]
Many factors are involved in the selection of atmospheric tracers of environmental tobacco
smoke. Since many environmental tobacco smoke compounds can exist in the vapour
and/or in the particulate phase, the measurement of one particular component will not
necessarily reflect exposure to other components.
Furthermore, it can be expected that gas-phase compounds in environmental tobacco
smoke will be removed at different rates in indoor environments. The relationship of
various gas-phase components to each other and to the particulate phase of ETS will be
dependent on their relative removal rates. It is therefore important to determine the gas-
particle distribution of key environmental tobacco smoke constituents and select
appropriate markers for each phase of environmental tobacco smoke.
It may also be important to select both a reactive and a non-reactive marker, because the
lifetime of the latter depends only on the ventilation rate in an indoor environment, while
the removal of the reactive species will be dominant by reactions with other chemical
compounds and surfaces.

32
A good tracer should have the following characteristics:
unique to ETS. This is to ensure minimal contribution from other sources.
easily detectable at low concentrations
have similar emission rates among various tobacco products
have consistent proportions to other ETS compounds for different environments
and tobacco products
The most widely used marker compounds for assessing the presence and concentration of
ETS in indoor air are:
Vapour-phase nicotine
Nicotine is present in the particulate phase in mainstream smoke (MS), but it is diluted in
sidestream smoke (SS); nicotine volatilises and is mainly present in the gas phase in ETS.
Nicotine is used as a tracer because it is unique to tobacco smoke, it is easily measurable at
realistic concentrations indoors and the ratio of nicotine to particulate matter does not
appear to vary among different brands of cigarettes.
Points against the use of vapour phase nicotine as a ETS tracer
As vapour phase nicotine is mainly present in the vapour phase, its use as
particulate-phase tracer has been questioned.
Nicotine deposited on surfaces can be re-emitted to the gas phase.
Nicotine readily sorbs onto surfaces, so it is not an ideal marker for the more
volatile components of ETS which have significantly lower deposition rates.
Concentration levels up to 50 to 75 micrograms per cubic metre have been measured in
public bars.
Respirable suspended particle mass
The reasons for using RSP as an ETS tracer are : a) most of the most toxic compounds
(including carcinogens) are found in the particulate matter phase of ETS, b) RSP
concentrations can be correlated with number of cigarettes smoked in indoor
environments, c) RSP is easily measurable above background levels indoors as long as
there is no other major source of particles.
Points against the use of RSP as a ETS tracer
RSP is not unique to ETS and it is not an adequate measure of environmental
tobacco smoke exposure in the presence of other sources of RSP
Exposure to tobacco smoke RSP will not necessarily represent exposure to vapour-
phase constituents of ETS.