سه شنبه ۲۰ شهریور ۰۳ | ۲۱:۲۹ ۱۰ بازديد
in its ability to engage in proscribed activities. Sanctions can raise the costs of the
target’s activities or force it into costly changes with regard to strategy and the pro-
curement of supplies necessary to its activities or economic survival.
At the same time, sanctions may be intended to send a signal to a target or some
other relevant constituency. The signalling aspect of sanctions is under-appreciated
in the scholarly and policy literature on sanctions. Dismissing sanctions as ‘merely
symbolic’ gestures fails to appreciate their role in the articulation and reinforcement
of global norms. Sanctions impose costs on both the target and the sender, and back-
ing the rhetorical conviction of diplomatic condemnations with costs imposed on
one’s own constituents is a powerful way to communicate norms. Sanctions also send
signals to multiple constituencies, not only the target, but also other actors tempted
to pursue similar policies. They can even be used as signals to prevent allies from es-
calating a conflict and resorting to the use of military force, as they were in the case of
recent EU sanctions against Iran.
These different goals are inter-related in complex ways. An asset freeze intended to
coerce an individual to stop financing acts of terrorism can simultaneously be uti-
lised to constrain a group from being able to commit those acts. Constraining a rebel
group’s access to resources to purchase arms can tip the balance on the battlefield and
influence their calculations about a negotiated settlement of a conflict. If potentially
imitating states see the stigmatising effects of signalling sanctions on their peers, they
may be persuaded into compliance with burdensome treaty obligations.
Given that the goals of sanctions are multiple, their effectiveness in achieving those
goals should be evaluated in analytically separate terms. If a sanction fails to coerce
a change in the behaviour of the target, it is not necessarily a failure in policy. Sanc-
tions might succeed in constraining a target, in buying time for a negotiated settle-
ment, or in signalling resolve about a norm that has important implications for the
policy behaviour of other parties.
By differentiating the effectiveness of sanctions according to their purpose, the re-
search of the TSC has shown that sanctions intended to constrain or to signal tar-
gets are nearly three times as effective (27% of the time) as sanctions intended to
coerce a change in behaviour (only 10% of the time).
Seven conditions for sanctions success
1. Pre-sanctions trade volumes need to be important for economic sanctions to bite
Sanctions on an entire economy or a sector of an economy can only coerce change
or constrain targets when pre-sanction trade between the sanction-imposer and the
sanction target is important for the target. This means (a) that the lower the level of
pre-sanction trade, the higher the probability of failure, and (b) that boycotts and
embargoes of highly valued products that cannot be replaced, re-sourced or (re)sold
have more impact. This is common sense, but all too often students of sanctions have
overlooked this basic requirement. They either do not consider trade at all, do not
measure trade linkages before the sanction is imposed or threatened, or consider only
the development of bilateral trade (not taking potential trade diversion into account).
Figure 1 shows how the expected result of a sanction is linked to the amount of
bilateral trade between sender and target as a percentage of the target’s GDP (meas-
ured in the year before the sanction is imposed). Clearly when trade linkage is low,
failures to coerce a change in behaviour exceed successes by far. Once proportional
trade linkage is above 10%, the rate of success is almost 50%, a strong improvement
of the 33% success rate observed for all sanctions.
Figure 1: Trade linkages and sanctions success
Sources for data: calculations based on Peter A. G. van Bergeijk, Economic Diplomacy and the Geography of International
Trade (Edward Elgar, 2009). The primary data set for the outcome of sanctions is the Peterson Institute sanction
database.
2. Sanctions tend to succeed most in the initial years of implementation
Adjustment by the target reduces the potential impact of economic sanctions. Here
two mechanisms operate.
Firstly, a sanction implies that the pre-sanction pattern of international specialisa-
tion is no longer optimal and needs to be changed. This process of reallocation of
labour and capital towards other sectors (e.g. from the export sector to the import
sector) requires time. The longer the duration of the sanctions, the better the sanc-
tion target can adjust to the new situation.
Secondly, during the adjustment process economic performance will improve. From
a political economy perspective it is important that this creates the perception that
the worst is over. Indeed, while economic activity will remain below pre-sanction
levels, growth rates may be positive, fuelling the expectation that the sanctions can
be overcome.
Given that targeted countries tend to adjust their economies under sanctions, the
potential sanction damage is largest before adjustment can undercut the (potential)
costs of sanctions.
Figure 2 illustrates the importance of duration. About 40% of the successes in
changing behaviour occur in the first year of a sanction regime; a good 60% of the
failure cases are characterised by duration in excess of three years.
Figure 2: Duration and sanction success/failure
Source: Sajjad Faraji Dizaji and Peter A. G. van Bergeijk, ‘Potential early phase success and ultimate failure of eco-
nomic sanctions: A VAR approach with an application to Iran’, Journal of Peace Research, vol. 50, no. 6, 2013, pp. 721-36.
3. The psychological factor: expectations, credibility and strategic interaction play a major role
The actual application of sanctions is uncertain, and the very threat of sanctions
can play a major role in changing target behaviour. A sanction does not only impose
costs on the target, but also on the country that imposes the sanctions. After all,
both countries have to forego the benefits of international trade. Therefore the ac-
tions and reactions of the actors involved need to be analysed comprehensively, and
the analyst needs to deal with expectations.
This implies, first of all, that we need to acknowledge that the expected outcome ex
ante may be different from the observed outcome ex post (for example, the target may
think it unlikely that the sanction threat will actually be applied).
Sanctions ‘bite’ most when they are unanticipated
Sanctions that are expected by the target give rise to activities that reduce their im-
pact, such as stockpiling, setting up import substitution, refocusing exports and
imports on non-traditional markets and reducing dependency on foreign capital
and trade in general. Unexpectedness can be achieved by contingency planning,
short deliberations, quick implementation, the engagement of unexpected (non-
traditional) sanction imposers, and the use of instruments (new types of sanctions
or restrictive measures) that have not been used before.
The threat of sanctions is more effective than the actual imposition of sanctions
Strategic interaction is an important element. Both target and sender have to con-
sider the implications of their behaviour for their reputation. A history of strong
sanctions may enhance the sender’s reputation and make its threats more credible
(it may, however, also provide incentives to future sanction targets to avoid having
too close trading links with such a sender). Giving in to sanctions may reveal weak-
ness on the part of the target, and this may spill over to and have an adverse effect
on other international negotiations.
The actual imposition of sanctions represents a failed strategy of bluffing on both
sides. The target underestimates the resolve of the sender, while the sender is unable
to persuade the target to weigh accurately the costs and benefits of changing behav-
iour. This is linked to the above insight about the short-term nature of sanctions
effectiveness when it comes to efforts to coerce a change in behaviour. For example,
the threat of international sanctions was reportedly an important factor in former
Yemen President Saleh’s decision to step down from power in 2012, just as it played
into the decision of President Kiir to sign the South Sudan peace agreement in 2015.
The credibility of sanction threats can be enhanced by a track record of effective
sanctions implementation. A threat of sanctions that is not followed up by actual
measures that bite undermines the credibility of the use of sanctions in future cases.
This reputational consequence implies that the use of sanctions should be restrict-
ed to cases where the sanctions can be imposed, monitored and implemented. Like-
wise, sanctions that cannot be sustained, or for which the coalition imposing the
sanctions is unstable, should be avoided.
Sanctions are less effective the higher the risk tolerance of targets
We also need to consider the risk tolerance of the sanction target leadership. Deci-
sion-makers are not risk neutral: sometimes the target is risk averse and sometimes
the target has a risk preference and is willing to take the gamble even if the expected
outcome is negative.
Sanctions against targets whose leadership has a short horizon of survival are less
likely to succeed in changing target behaviour. A short time horizon is associated
with more risky behaviour. Government officials who may have to fear for their lives
if they comply with sanctions will show risk-taking behaviour in the sense that they
may gamble that the sanctions will not be implemented (effectively). Targeted entities
that are participating in a civil war may be thought to act irrationally if they do not
give in under extreme economic pressure, but if no viable alternative exists, sanctions
have a low probability of succeeding. Under these conditions, sanctions designed to
constrain the target may be more appropriate, such as the travel bans and asset freez-
es imposed on individuals deemed responsible for war crimes or seen as a potential
threat to the peace processes in Angola and Liberia in the 1990s and early 2000s.1
‘Failed’ sanctions can create a new baseline for engagement with the target
The presentation of costs and benefits matters. People have different assessments of
losses and benefits, even if they are relatively of equal magnitude. In cases where the
‘stick’ (the threat of sanction damage) does not prove effective in bringing about a
change in behaviour, the ‘carrot’ of incentives or positive inducements might suc-
ceed. One reason for sanction implementation may thus be to create a new baseline.
Lifting sanctions can then be framed in a positive way, as they have in the case of
Iran. The same happened with Libya in the 1990s, when the promise of a suspension
of sanctions triggered a diplomatic breakthrough.
Sanctions intended to send a signal to the target (or to others observing the sanc-
tions dynamic), often perform a stigmatising function. Most targets are not shamed
by sanctions (in the sense of naming and shaming), because they tend not to share
the norms being articulated by those sending the sanctions. They can, however, be
stigmatised or isolated among some relevant communities by being sanctioned.
Some of the individuals designated by the UN Security Council for their financing
1. See Biersteker et. al., SanctionsApp, Angola, episode 3 and Liberia, episode 4, for details. Available online at: http://
www.sanctionsapp.com.
of terrorism, were not shamed by their listing (because they viewed their cause as
just), but they were shunned and stigmatised by their neighbours.
4. Sanctions are more likely to succeed if the target is more democratic (less authoritarian)
Sanctions are mediated by political systems. The effectiveness of international sanc-
tions is often determined by the nature of the political system or political economy
in place in the target state. Economic costs of sanctions cannot be assessed in a uni-
tary cost/benefit manner, but affect different communities and regions of the target
country in different ways.
The stronger the autocratic institutions vis-à-vis democratic institutions, the low-
er the opposition’s political effectiveness; sanctions will thus lead to stronger and
more effective opposition in democracies as compared to autocracies. Authoritar-
ian regimes also have the capacity to distribute the losses (and gains) from sanc-
tions in ways that penalise their opponents and reward their supporters, thus of-
ten strengthening authoritarian rule in the process, as observed in Iraq during the
1990s.
The target’s institutional framework is not black and white: some countries are
more authoritarian than other countries (as for example can be seen in the discus-
sions on Russia and Iran in chapters II and V respectively). Among authoritarian
states personalist regimes and monarchies are also more vulnerable to sanctions
than military regimes and single party states, because they have a track record of
relying more heavily on external financial support.
Sanctions may strengthen rather than weaken popular support for the regime
An external threat may generate a ‘rally around the flag’ effect, as has been observed
in Russia under sanctions (see chapter II). This is particularly the case when the tar-
get population approves of the behaviour that the sender is opposing and seeking to
change. Targets of sanctions in authoritarian regimes often mobilise popular sup-
port through their control of the media and their ability to depict the sanctions as
targeted not against the proscribed activities of the regime in power, but against the
entire nation. Religiously motivated behaviour is thus difficult to change. Military
activity to safeguard fellow nationals who are minorities in other countries can also
count on strong popular support, as in Russia. In these cases, sanctions often fail
to tip the balance.
Targets with a strong ideological motivation are almost impossible to coerce
Sanctions targets with a strong commitment to a political-economic ideology, to
religious extremism, or targets engaged in a struggle for survival and self-determi-
nation are difficult to coerce with sanctions. A change in their behaviour might un-
dermine the rationale or basis on which they rely for political legitimation, survival
and support. As a result, they are willing and able to bear very high costs.
Groups engaged in carrying out acts of terrorism that are highly resistant to at-
tempts at coercion, such as the al-Qaeda terrorist network, are more appropriately
targeted with sanctions intended to constrain their activities rather than to force
a change in their behaviour. The same applies to most targeted sanctions against
non-state armed groups.
5. Strong multilateral political commitment makes sanctions more effective
Most sanctions regimes are the product not of unilateral decisions taken by a single
state, but of collective decision-making within a multilateral institutional frame-
work. As such, the dynamics of decision-making, implementation, monitoring, and
resolve are influenced by institutional factors.
The more multilateral the sanctions are, the fewer the options for sanctions evasion
or trade diversion by the target. Moreover, sanctions imposed by universal member
institutions like the United Nations have more international legitimacy than sanc-
tions imposed by a single state as an instrument of its foreign policy. Sanctions
imposed by regional organisations of which the target is a member also have greater
legitimacy than sanctions imposed by a regional organisation on third parties who
are not members of the regional institution.
Multilateral decision-making is not always based on a collective, unitary, consist-
ent or strategic logic. Rather, the text and content of many international sanctions
enacted by international organisations is the product of negotiation, bargaining,
separate bilateral deals, and side-payments. The texts of international sanctions res-
olutions often contain what diplomats refer to as ‘constructive ambiguity,’ which,
although useful for negotiation purposes, can render the terms subject to multiple,
and conflicting, interpretations. When sender ambiguity is visible to targets, targets
are more likely to wait out the sanctions or to develop counter-strategies to sow dis-
sent among sender states, as Libya did by mobilising OAU and Arab League opposi-
tion to the implementation of UN sanctions in the 1990s.
Political will is indicated by unanimity in sanctions resolutions, unambiguous texts,
devoting resources to sanctions implementation, active monitoring and enforcement
activities, and by a visible willingness by the senders to bear the costs of the measures.
6. Narrowly defined goals & multiple policy instruments increase success rate of sanctions
Targets are more likely to comply with narrowly articulated goals – such as conven-
ing elections (DRC), turning over suspects (Libya in the 1990s), providing access to
a disputed territory (Russia) – that give them some room for manoeuvre than to
comply with multiple, vaguely defined, general goals (like improving the human
rights situation in the territory under their control).
The simultaneous application of other policy instruments, such as referrals to inter-
national legal tribunals, the application of other (regional) sanctions, and the intro-
duction of resource certification schemes, is also correlated with effective efforts to
coerce a target to change their behaviour. Applying sanctions to an entire country is
more effective than trying to limit them to a single territory or region of the coun-
try, due to the complexity of implementation of the measures by companies called
upon to restrict their transactions to a targeted region.
Some cases, such as post-conflict situations handled by the UN over the last two
decades, show that an even more fine-tuned strategy can effectively constrain tar-
geted actors. When the UN tries to stay neutral and avoids taking sides in a conflict,
as it often does when it first becomes involved, its sanctions (typically imposed on
‘all parties to a conflict’) tend to be ineffective.
After a peace settlement is negotiated, and the UN uses sanctions to constrain one
party (potential spoilers to the transitional arrangement), the sanctions have a
higher probability of effectiveness. Since virtually all international sanctions today
are targeted, focusing on key regime supporters and core family members is more
important than focusing directly on the political leadership of the regime. When
appropriate, cutting off access to sources of revenue (diamonds, timber, oil, diverted
charitable donations) is highly effective in constraining targets, as seen in the cases
of Liberia and Sierra Leone.
When only one type of targeted sanction is imposed in isolation, it is never effective
Based on the data accumulated by the TSC for UN sanctions, imposing a single type
of sanction in isolation (an arms embargo or a travel ban, for example), is never effec-
tive. On average, the simultaneous application of at least three (and closer to four)
different types of targeted sanctions is necessary for effective coercion, constraint or
signalling.
The most common combination of targeted sanctions imposed by the UN is an arms
embargo, travel ban, and an asset freeze. When commodity sanctions are added to the
mix, as they frequently are in the African conflict cases (Angola, Liberia, Sierra Leone,
Somalia), the effectiveness of such measures tends to increase. Sanctions effectiveness
is also associated with simultaneous use of other policy instruments (threats of force,
use of force, peacekeeping operations, legal referrals to international tribunals, covert
operations, and sanctions imposed by more than one organisation).
7. ‘Targeted’ sanctions can be as effective as comprehensive sanctions
Even though they invariably affect fewer people and have lower humanitarian con-
sequences, targeted sanctions, on average, do not appear to be significantly less ef-
fective than comprehensive sanctions. The aggregate figures of the effectiveness of
63 cases of UN targeted sanctions from the TSC suggest an average of 22%, as op-
posed to the Peterson Institute for International Economics data that suggest 33%
for all types of sanctions (comprehensive and targeted).
This has implications for the debate about how to strengthen sanctions. It suggests
that there are different ways to bolster sanctions – both a widening (to additional
segments of the population) or a deepening (applying secondary sanctions to evad-
ers). Public discourse tends to equate strengthening with widening, not deepening,
the measures, but secondary sanctions on evading parties tend to be under-utilised.
In the final analysis, sanctions can be effective, even when targets prove resistant
to changing their behaviour. There are situations in which sanctions communicate
a strong signal to other parties to avoid embarking on a proscribed policy activ-
ity. This applies particularly to the non-proliferation sanctions regime. While the
sanctions imposed on individual countries to cease their ‘weaponisation’ of nuclear
programmes have not always yielded success, other countries contemplating similar
programmes have been deterred from embarking on them. Thus, while the sanc-
tions may have failed at one level, they have succeeded at another.
Collateral damage as a result of broad-based sanctions is inevitable
Opponents of sanctions often point out secondary or unexpected outcomes of
sanction cases, drawing principally on the case of comprehensive sanctions against
Iraq in the 1990s. Collateral damage occurs in terms of health (including lower life
expectancy, increased child mortality and contagious diseases), education (reduced
spending and completion rates) suppression of minorities, and effects on the gen-
der division of labour. A deterioration of human rights situations has also been
documented, as have increases in corruption and a legacy of criminality once sanc-
tions are lifted (because networks originally established to evade sanctions can be
utilised to engage in criminal activities – as seen in the former Yugoslavia). While
these effects appear and often are unintended, they are not unexpected. Indeed a
large body of literature exists that clarifies that economic slow-downs, such as reces-
sions, leave their marks on these important determinants of individual well-being
– and comprehensive economic sanctions contribute to (and are mostly intended
to) slow down an economy.
Conclusion: ending sanctions remains difficult
Ending unsuccessful sanctions is difficult. The sanctions have been imposed because
the target behaves in a way that is deemed unacceptable. If the sanctions do not
change that behaviour or constrain the target, there is no logical reason to end the
sanctions. Typically the ending of such sanctions needs a change of government,
often in the sanction target country, but sometimes also in the sanction sending
country. A new leadership can set new rules of engagement and this may offer an
opportunity to reevaluate the utility of economic sanctions that are still in place.
Monitoring the impact of sanctions, especially of their unintended consequences,
may provide arguments to review the sanction regime.
Ending successful sanctions looks straightforward but in reality it is also compli-
cated. Sanction goals may be adjusted over time or be only partially met. Still, for
sanctions to work, the commitment to lift sanctions and transparency about the
conditions under which this will be done needs to be clear. The negotiation among
senders over the sequencing of the suspension or lifting of sanctions has important
consequences for both target and senders and can have significant benefits for those
who first renew business activities with the targeted entity.
Failure to suspend or lift sanctions creates two problems for the senders of sanc-
tions. First, they place an administrative burden on sender states or institutions.
The UN never had more than six or seven sanctions regimes in place at the same
time during the 1990s. Today, the number has grown to sixteen simultaneous re-
gimes in place. Second, failure to lift sanctions after the situation changes under-
mines the legitimacy of sending institutions and makes it more difficult for them to
secure compliance by others
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